Culinary Chemistry - free ebook by Friedrich Christian Accum

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Culinary Chemistry

Friedrich Christian Accum

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Culinary Chemistry, EXHIBITING THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, WITH CONCISE INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING GOOD AND WHOLESOME PICKLES, VINEGAR, CONSERVES, FRUIT JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND VARIOUS OTHER ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED IN Domestic Economy, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD.

Culinary Chemistry, EXHIBITING THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, WITH CONCISE INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING GOOD AND WHOLESOME PICKLES, VINEGAR, CONSERVES, FRUIT JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND VARIOUS OTHER ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED IN Domestic Economy, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD.

WITH COPPER PLATES. By FREDRICK ACCUM, Operative Chemist, Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on Chemistry applied to the Arts and Manufactures; Member of the Royal Irish Academy; Fellow of the Linnæan Society; Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Royal Society of Arts Berlin, &amp;c. &amp;c. London: Published by R. ACKERMANN, 101, Strand ; 1821. WITH COPPER PLATES. By FREDRICK ACCUM, Operative Chemist, Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, on Mineralogy, and on

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

The publications which I have presented to the world, having been almost exclusively confined to subjects connected with the Fine Arts, I feel it in some measure incumbent on me to explain the cause of my having undertaken to be the publisher of this volume. It has arisen from a distressing event, in which its very ingenious, useful, and elaborate Author, happened to be involved. The work was in some degree of advancement, when the sudden and most unexpected misfortune to which I have alluded, t

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PREFACE.

PREFACE.

LONDON, COMPTON STREET, SOHO. The following pages are intended to exhibit a popular view of the philosophy of cookery, to enable the reader to understand the chemical principles, by means of which alimentary substances are rendered palatable and nutritious. The subject may appear frivolous; but let it be remembered that it is by the application of the principles of philosophy to the ordinary affairs of life, that science diffuses her benefits, and perfects her claim to the gratitude of mankind.

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COOKERY IS A BRANCH OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

COOKERY IS A BRANCH OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

Cookery, or the art of preparing good and wholesome food, and of preserving all sorts of alimentary substances in a state fit for human sustenance, of rendering that agreeable to the taste which is essential to the support of life, and of pleasing the palate without injury to the system, is, strictly speaking, a branch of chemistry; but, important as it is both to our enjoyments and our health, it is also one of the least cultivated branches of that science. The culinary processes of roasting, b

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF MAN.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF MAN.

No animal eats such variety of food as man; he claims, more justly than any other creature, the title of omnivorous! for since he is distinguished beyond all animals, but the capability of living in the most distant parts of the globe, under every variety of climate which the earth affords, his food could not be confined exclusively to either the vegetable or animal kingdom, because he inhabits regions that afford aliments widely different from each other. Cattle content themselves with green ve

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NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY UPON VEGETABLE FOOD.

NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY UPON VEGETABLE FOOD.

The variety of alimentary substances used not only by individuals, but among whole nations, are prodigiously diversified, and climate seems to have some effect in producing the diversity of taste, though it must in a great measure depend upon the natural productions of particular countries, their religion, and their commercial intercourse. A vegetable diet seems suitable to the hot countries under the Equator, and we accordingly find nations there, who have completely adopted it, and who abstain

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NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY ON ANIMAL FOOD.

NATIONS LIVING WHOLLY ON ANIMAL FOOD.

The nations which live on animal food are very numerous. The Ethiopeans, Scythians, and Arabians, ate nothing but flesh. The miserable inhabitants of New Holland lived wholly on fish when that country was first discovered, and other tribes on the Arabian and Persian gulph. In the Faro islands, in Iceland and Greenland, the food arises from the same source. The shepherds in the province of Caracas, on the Oronoko, live wholly on flesh. The Tartars in Asia, and some savage nations in North America

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SINGULAR KIND OF ALIMENTS OF VARIOUS NATIONS.

SINGULAR KIND OF ALIMENTS OF VARIOUS NATIONS.

Besides the before-mentioned diversities of national and individual taste for different kinds of substances, used as aliments, there are other kinds of food which we at least think more singular. Some of the tribes of Arabs, Moors, the Californians, and Ethiopians, eat tad-poles, locusts, and spiders. In some places the flesh of serpents, that of the coluber natrix for example, is eaten; and the viper is made into broth. Several other reptiles are used as food by the European settlers in America

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN EPICURE AND A GLUTTON.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN EPICURE AND A GLUTTON.

However extravagant and whimsical the rational pleasures of the table may appear to a sober and sensible mind, we must, in justice to epicures, cursorily observe, that there exists a material difference between a gormand or epicure, and a glutton . [10] The first seeks for peculiar delicacy and distinct flavour in the various dishes presented to the judgment and enjoyment of his discerning palate; while the other lays aside nearly all that relates to the rational pleasures of creating or stimula

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IMPORTANCE OF THE ART OF COOKERY.

IMPORTANCE OF THE ART OF COOKERY.

As man differs from the inferior animals in the variety of articles he feeds upon, so he differs from them no less in the preparation of these substances. Some animals, besides man, prepare their food in a particular manner. The racoon ( ursus lutor ) is said to wash his roots before he eats them; and the beaver stores his green boughs under water that their bark and young twigs may remain juicy and palatable. The action of fire, however, has never been applied to use by any animal except man; n

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DIETETICAL REMARKS ON THE CHOICE AND QUANTITY OF FOOD.

DIETETICAL REMARKS ON THE CHOICE AND QUANTITY OF FOOD.

Almost every person who can afford it, eats more than is requisite for promoting the growth, and renewing the strength and waste of his body. It would be ridiculous to speak concerning the precise quantity of food necessary to support the body of different individuals. Such rules do not exist in nature. The particular state or condition of the individual, the variety of constitution, and other circumstances, must be taken into account. If, after dinner, we feel ourselves as cheerful as before, w

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EXTRAORDINARY GREAT EATERS, AND OBSERVATIONS ON ABSTINENCE.

EXTRAORDINARY GREAT EATERS, AND OBSERVATIONS ON ABSTINENCE.

In some persons, an extraordinary great appetite seems to be constitutional. Charles Domery , aged 21 years, when a prisoner of war, at Liverpool, consumed in one day and five bottles of porter; and although allowed the daily rations of ten men, he was not satisfied. Another extraordinary instance has been recorded by Baron Percy:—A soldier of the name of Tarare , who, at the age of 17, could devour in the course of 24 hours, a leg of beef weighing 24lbs. and thought nothing of swallowing the di

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REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CUSTOM OF EATING FLESH.

REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CUSTOM OF EATING FLESH.

We are told, that in the first ages of the world, men lived upon acorns, berries, and such fruits as the earth spontaneously produced, and that in the Shepherd state of society, milk, obtained from flocks and herds, came into use. Soon afterwards the flesh of wild animals was added to the food, and the juice of grape to the drink of the human species. Hogs were the first animals, of the domestic kind, that were eaten by men, for they held it ungrateful to eat the animals that assisted them in th

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COMPARATIVE ALIMENTARY EFFECTS OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FOOD.

COMPARATIVE ALIMENTARY EFFECTS OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FOOD.

Animal food alone is ill adapted to form the whole of our aliment. The inquiries of physiologists have determined, that animal food is highly stimulant, and like all other stimulants, after the excitement has been brought to its acmé, debility must by necessity succeed. This, however, is not so much the case where fresh meat is used as when the meat is salted; but this may be, because our examples, with regard to fresh meat, are less marked than in the case of salted provision. For few instances

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED FOR FOOD.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED FOR FOOD.

Of the different classes of animals used for food, quadrupeds compose the greatest proportion, and there is no part of their bodies which does not contain nutritive parts, and that has not been used as food in some way or other. Even bones affords an alimentary jelly fit for human food. The largest portion of our aliment, however, is derived from the voluntary muscles of animals, or what is more strictly called, the flesh, consisting of all the red fibrous substance which covers the bones. It sh

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED FOR FOOD.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES COMMONLY USED FOR FOOD.

The vegetable substances used for food are, if we include fruits, much more numerous than those derived from the animal kingdom. The chief of these, however, are the different sorts of grain and pulse, the farina or flour of which, contains a large proportion of starch, gluten, and mucilage, and but little woody fibre, and is consequently highly nutritious, and easily digested. To this class of plants we are also indebted for the food of the animals whose flesh is most generally used. In pulse,

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GENERAL OPERATIONS OF COOKERY.

GENERAL OPERATIONS OF COOKERY.

Few of the substances which we use for food are consumed in the state in which they are originally produced by nature. With the exception of some fruits and salads, all of them undergo some preparation. In most cases, indeed, this is indispensable; for, otherwise, they would not only be less wholesome and nutritive, but less digestible. The preceding observations, therefore, are only applicable to the materials when cooked, and not to the crude vegetables and raw flesh in the undressed state. Th

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ROASTING ON A SPIT

ROASTING ON A SPIT

Appears to be the most ancient process of rendering animal food eatable by means of the action of heat. Spits were used very anciently in all parts of the world, and perhaps, before the plain practice of hanging the meat to a string before the fire. Ere the iron age had taught men the use of metals, these roasting instruments were made of wood; and as we find it in Virgil, [20] slender branches of the hazel tree were particularly chosen— [20] Georgics II. 545. Roasting is the most simple and dir

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ROASTING ON A STRING

ROASTING ON A STRING

Is usually performed by means of the useful contrivance called a bottle jack , a well-known machine, so named from its form. It only serves for small joints, but does that better than the spit. It is cheap and simple, and the turning motion is produced by the twisting and untwisting of a string. The sort of roasting machine, called the Poor Man’s Spit , is something of the same nature, but still more simple. The meat is suspended by a skein of worsted, a twirling motion being given to the meat,

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ROASTING IN AN OPEN OVEN.

ROASTING IN AN OPEN OVEN.

A Dutch or open oven is a machine for roasting small joints, such as fowls, &amp;c. It consists of an arched box of tin open on one side, which side is placed against the fire. The joint being either suspended in the machine on a spit, or by a hook, or put on a low trevet placed on the bottom of the oven, which is moveable. The inside of the oven should be kept bright that it may reflect the heat of the fire. This is the most economical and most expeditious method of roasting in the small wa

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ROASTING IN A CLOSED OVEN.

ROASTING IN A CLOSED OVEN.

Roasting in a closed oven, or baking , consists in exposing substances to be roasted to the action of heat in a confined space, or closed oven, which does not permit the free access of air, to cause the vapour arising from the roasted substance to escape as fast as it is formed, and this circumstance materially alters the flavour of roasted animal substances. Roasters and ovens of the common construction are apt to give the meat a disagreeable flavour, arising from the empyreumatic oil, which is

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BROILING.

BROILING.

Another process in which meat is subjected to the immediate action of fire is broiling, which at first sight seems not to differ from roasting. The effect on the meat is, however, considerably different. The process consists in laying chops or slices of meat on clear burning coals, or a gridiron placed over a clear fire. It is indispensable that the chops or slices be moderately thin, otherwise the outside will be scorched to a cinder before they are cooked within; from one fourth to three fourt

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FRYING.

FRYING.

Frying is a process somewhat intermediate between roasting and boiling. Indeed, in one sense, it may be termed boiling, as it is the application of heat to the substance to be cooked, through the medium of melted fat, raised to the boiling temperature. The effect on the meat is very peculiar, and easily distinguished from every other mode of cooking. The meat is prepared in the same way as in broiling, by cutting it into chops, or slices, of not more than half an inch or three quarters in thickn

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STEWING.

STEWING.

Stewing differs from roasting and broiling, in the heat being applied to the substance through a small portion of a liquid medium; and, from boiling and frying, in the process being conducted by means of an aqueous , and not by means of an oily fluid. It is necessary that the fire be moderate; for a strong heat suddenly applied would be very injurious. The liquids employed as the medium for applying the heat are usually water, gravy, or broth, the quantity of which must be such as shall prevent

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BOILING.

BOILING.

Boiling is a much more common operation than any of those we have considered, with the exception perhaps of roasting. It consists, as every body knows, in subjecting the materials of food to the influence of heat, through the medium of boiling water, or of steam. The water employed for boiling meat or pulse should be soft, and the joint should be put on the fire immersed in cold water, in order that the heat may gradually cause the whole mass to become boiled equally. If the piece of meat is of

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COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL CHANGES PRODUCED ON ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FOOD, IN THE DIFFERENT PROCESSES OF COOKERY.

COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL CHANGES PRODUCED ON ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FOOD, IN THE DIFFERENT PROCESSES OF COOKERY.

The principal operations of cookery which we have just examined and explained, all agree in this, that they effect some chemical change on the materials operated upon, by which they are rendered more digestible, more wholesome, and consequently more nutritive. In such of the operations as are performed by the direct application of heat to the flesh of animals, namely, roasting, baking, frying, and broiling, the meat loses the vapid and nauseous taste and odour which it possesses in a raw state,

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COMPARATIVE DIMINUTION OF THE WEIGHT OF MEAT IN COOKING.

COMPARATIVE DIMINUTION OF THE WEIGHT OF MEAT IN COOKING.

It is evident, that whether the heat be applied directly or indirectly for cooking animal food, there must be a considerable diminution of weight. In the cooking of animal substances in public institutions, where the allowance of meat is generally weighed out in its raw state, and includes bones, and is served out cooked, and sometimes without bone, it is a matter of importance to ascertain nearly their relative proportions. Much, no doubt, depends upon the piece of the meat cooked, and the degr

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PRIMARY OR CHIEF DISHES OF THE ENGLISH TABLE.

PRIMARY OR CHIEF DISHES OF THE ENGLISH TABLE.

The principal or chief dishes that are prepared for the English table, what the scientific cooks for the marshals and generals of France would term dishes of the first order , are few in number. Flesh , fowl and fish , roasted, boiled or fried, accompanied by some simple and easy made puddings and pies, are the primary dishes of an English table. Soups and broths are less generally made use of; and the flesh, fowl and fish, served up in made dishes, are, like the lord mayor in his state coach, g

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BROTH

BROTH

May be defined a weak decoction of meat, slightly seasoned with the addition of aromatic herbs, roots or spices, in which the flavour of the meat greatly predominates. To produce a high flavoured broth, it is essential that the boiling of the meat be moderate, and continued for some time; the simmering should be done in a vessel nearly closed. Cooks consider it essential that the broth be clear; the scum, or albumen of the meat, which becomes coagulated and rises to the surface during the boilin

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SOUP.

SOUP.

Soups are decoctions of meat which differ from broth, in being more concentrated, and usually also more complex in their composition. They are in fact strong broths, containing either farinaceous roots and seeds, or other parts of vegetable substances. The erudite editor of the “ Almanach des Gourmands ” [27] tells us, that ten folio volumes would not contain the receipts of all the soups that have been invented in that grand school of good eating, the Parisian kitchen. The author of Apicius Red

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PIES

PIES

Are those dishes which consist either of meat, or of fruit, covered with a farinaceous crust, enriched with butter or other fat, and rendered fit for eating by baking. The crust of the pie is usually made of two parts by weight of wheaten flour, and one part of butter, lard, or other fat. The flour is made into a stiff paste with cold water, and rolled out on a board with a paste pin to the thickness of about one quarter of an inch, the board being previously sprinkled over with flour to prevent

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PUDDINGS

PUDDINGS

Are of two kinds; the first consists of a farinaceous dough, containing a portion of butter or other fat, inclosing any kind of meat or fruit, and rendered eatable by boiling; it may be termed a boiled pie . The paste for a meat pudding is usually made with beef suet, or marrow, one part of it chopped as fine as possible, and intimately mixed with four parts by weight of flour, is made into a paste with water or milk. With this paste, a pudding mould or basin, previously rubbed with butter withi

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MADE DISHES,

MADE DISHES,

So called to distinguish them from plain, roasted, boiled, or fried meat; are usually composed of flesh, fish, poultry, or vegetables, stewed with gravy, butter, cream, or other savoury sauces. The composition of made dishes is generally from printed or written receipts, except when done by what are termed professed cooks, who, understanding completely their business, follow their own judgment, in aid of the receipt. There is a mistake very common in supposing that there is a great difficulty in

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OBSERVATIONS ON MADE DISHES.

OBSERVATIONS ON MADE DISHES.

Made dishes are sometimes very expensive, and sometimes very economical, for ragouts and fricassees are often much less expensive than the plain dishes made of the same material, that is, a given weight of meat will go farther than if plainly roasted or boiled. French cookery consists nearly altogether of made dishes, both with the rich and poor. The rich have them to gratify the palate, and the poor, for the sake of economy. Many circumstances combine to prevent made dishes from becoming of ver

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GRAVY.

GRAVY.

When the muscular part of meat is gradually exposed to a very moderate heat, sufficient to brown the outer fibres, the gelatine, osmazome, and other animal juices of it, become disengaged, and separated in a liquid state, and constitute a fluid of a brown colour, possessing a highly savoury and grateful taste. Hence gravy is the soluble constituent or liquid part of meat, which, spontaneously, exudes from flesh, when gradually exposed to a continued heat sufficient to corrugate the animal fibre.

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SAUCES.

SAUCES.

Dr. King’s Art of Cookery. Sauces are intended to heighten the taste and give a savoury flavour to a dish, flesh, fish, fowl, or vegetables. In England there is little variety in those kind of relishes, and it was observed by a foreigner, with a good deal of wit, and a great deal of truth, “that the English had a great variety of forms of religion and no variety in their sauces; whereas, in France they had uniformity in the former, and an infinite variety in the latter.” Melted butter is the gra

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THICKENING PASTE FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVY, AND MADE DISHES.

THICKENING PASTE FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVY, AND MADE DISHES.

It is customary to thicken some dishes with a compound of two parts of flour and one of butter, first made into a paste by heating slowly the ingredients in a pan, till the mass acquires a yellow gold colour, the flour and butter being stirred all the time to prevent the mass from burning to the bottom of the pan. The substance thus obtained is called thickening , or thickening paste , for it is the basis employed by cooks for thickening soups, gravies, stews, sauces, and other dishes. The mass

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COLOURING FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVIES, AND MADE DISHES.

COLOURING FOR BROTH, SOUP, GRAVIES, AND MADE DISHES.

The substance employed for colouring soups, gravies, broths, and other dishes, requiring a brown colour, is burnt sugar. This imparts to the dish a fine yellowish brown tinge, without giving any sensible flavour to the dish. Eight ounces of powdered lump sugar, and two or three table spoonfuls of water, are suffered to boil gently in an iron pan, till the mass has assumed a dark brown colour, which takes place when all the water is evaporated, and the sugar begins to be partly charred by the act

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STOCK FOR MAKING EXTEMPORANEOUS BROTH, SOUP, OR GRAVY.

STOCK FOR MAKING EXTEMPORANEOUS BROTH, SOUP, OR GRAVY.

The name of stock is given to meat jelly produced from a decoction of meat, so highly concentrated that the fluid, when cold, exhibits an elastic tremulous consistence. The meat is slowly boiled in water, with the customary seasonings, as pot herbs, or esculent roots, and the decoction skimmed, and continued to simmer till it is charged with a sufficient quantity of animal matter to form a jelly when cold; this degree of concentration is known by removing, from time to time, a portion of the flu

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHOICE OF MEAT.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHOICE OF MEAT.

The flesh of animals which are suddenly killed when in high health, so far as the palate is concerned, is not yet fit for the table, although fully nutritious and in perfection for making soup; because sometime after the death, the muscular parts suffer contraction—their fibres become rigid. When this has taken place, the flesh is not long in experiencing the commencement of those chemical changes which terminate in putrefaction; and it is of the utmost importance, in domestic economy, to take c

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ON KEEPING OF MEAT, AND BEST CONSTRUCTION OF LARDERS, PANTRIES AND MEAT SAFES.

ON KEEPING OF MEAT, AND BEST CONSTRUCTION OF LARDERS, PANTRIES AND MEAT SAFES.

Larders, pantries and safes, for keeping meat, should be sheltered from the direct rays of the sun, and otherwise guarded against the influence of warmth. All places where provisions are kept should be so constructed that a brisk current of cool air can be made to pass through them at command. With this view it would be advisable to have openings on all sides of larders, or meat safes, which might be closed or opened according to the way from which the wind blows, the time of the day, or season

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PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES IN A RECENT STATE.

PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES IN A RECENT STATE.

As the supply of food is always subject to irregularities, the preservation of the excess, obtained at one time, to meet the deficiency of another, would soon engage the attention of mankind. At first this method would be simple and natural, and derived from a very limited observation, but in the progress of society, the wants and occupations of mankind would lead them to invent means, by which the more perishable alimentary substances of one season, might be reserved for the consumption of anot

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PICKLING AND DRY SALTING OF MEAT.

PICKLING AND DRY SALTING OF MEAT.

Common salt is advantageously employed as an antiseptic, to preserve aliments from spontaneous decomposition, and particularly to prevent the putrefaction of animal food. In general, however, the large quantity of salt which is necessarily employed in this way, deteriorates the alimentary properties of the meat, and the longer it has been preserved, the less wholesome and digestible does it become. Meat, however, which has not been too long preserved, simply pickled, or corned meat as it is call

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METHOD OF PREPARING BACON, HAMS, AND HUNG BEEF.

METHOD OF PREPARING BACON, HAMS, AND HUNG BEEF.

Meat, when salted, is sometimes dried, when it gets the name of bacon, ham, or hung beef. The drying of salt meat is effected either by hanging it in a dry and well-aired place, or by exposing it at the same time to wood smoke, which gives it a peculiar flavour, much admired in Westphalia hams and Hamburgh beef, and also tends to preserve it, by the antiseptic action of the pyrolignic acid. When meat is to be hung, it need not be so highly salted. The method of preparing bacon is peculiar to cer

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SMOKE-DRYING, OR CURING OF BACON, HAMS, AND BEEF, AS PRACTISED IN WESTPHALIA.

SMOKE-DRYING, OR CURING OF BACON, HAMS, AND BEEF, AS PRACTISED IN WESTPHALIA.

The custom of fumigating hams with wood smoke is of a very ancient date, it was well known to the Romans, and Horace mentions it. [32] [32] Sat. II. 2-117. Several places on the Continent are famous for the delicacy and flavour of their hams; Westphalia, however, is at the head of the list. The method of curing bacon and hams in Westphalia (in Germany) is as follows: Families that kill one or more hogs a year, which is a common practice in private houses, have a closet in the garret, joining to

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METHOD OF CURING HAMS, BEEF, AND FISH, BY MEANS OF PYRO-LIGNEOUS ACID.

METHOD OF CURING HAMS, BEEF, AND FISH, BY MEANS OF PYRO-LIGNEOUS ACID.

The following account of the preservative quality of pyro-ligneous [33] acid, exhibited in a memoir by Dr. Wilkinson to the Bath Society, is highly important:— [33] Philosophical Magazine, 1821, No. 273, p. 12. “Mr. Sockett having directed his attention to the smoking of hams with wood smoke, either in a building erected for that purpose, or in a chimney where wood alone is burned, in addition to its considerable increase of flavour, he considered it more effectually preserved from putrefaction

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PICKLING OF FISH.

PICKLING OF FISH.

Fish may be preserved either by dry salting or in a liquid pickle. The former method is employed to a great extent on the banks of Newfoundland, and in Shetland. When a liquid pickle is used, the fish, as fresh as possible, are to be gutted, or not, and without delay plunged into the brine in quantity so as nearly to fill the reservoir, and after remaining covered with the pickle five or six days, they will be so completely impregnated with salt as to be perfectly fit to be re-packed in barrels,

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PICKLED MACKEREL.

PICKLED MACKEREL.

After splitting the fish, and having taken off their heads and part of the skin of the belly, let them be laid in brine about three or four hours; then put them in jars with the following pickle:—two pounds common salt, two ounces saltpetre, one ounce of sugar, half ounce white pepper, one drachm corriander seed, pounded all well together; sprinkle with this mixture the bottom of the jar; then put on a layer of mackerel, with the back downwards; then a layer of the spices, and then another of ma

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PICKLED SALMON.

PICKLED SALMON.

Split the fish down the middle, and divide each half into six pieces. Make a brine of salt sufficient in quantity to cover the fish when placed in a saucepan. Season with bruised pepper, mace, and allspice, and simmer the whole till the fish is done, taking care not to boil the fish more than is barely sufficient. Then take out the pieces to cool, and put them into a jar. Strain off the spice from the liquor in which the fish was boiled, and add to it a like quantity, by measure, of vinegar, and

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COLLARED EELS.

COLLARED EELS.

Skin and bone the eels; season them with mace, chopped eschalots, pepper, salt and pimento. Roll up the whole, and tie it firmly with tape; put it in a stew-pan with a pint of veal stock , half pint of white wine, and half as much vinegar; and let them simmer till done. Then put them into a dish; skim off the fat, and season with salt. Clear the liquor by simmering it a few minutes, with the white of two eggs, and pass it through a cloth: after which boil it till it becomes a thick jelly when co

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BEST METHOD OF PRESERVING ALL KINDS OF COOKED BUTCHER’S MEAT, FISH, OR POULTRY.

BEST METHOD OF PRESERVING ALL KINDS OF COOKED BUTCHER’S MEAT, FISH, OR POULTRY.

Of all the methods of preserving animal substances for domestic purposes, or sea store, the process found out by Mr. Appert, and pursued in this metropolis upon a large scale by Messrs. Donkin and Gamble, is unquestionably the best. It is as follows: Let the substance to be preserved be first par-boiled, or rather somewhat more, the bones of the meat being previously removed. Put the meat into a tin cylinder, fill up the vessel with the broth, and then solder on the lid, furnished with a small h

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PRESERVATION OF MEAT BY POTTING.

PRESERVATION OF MEAT BY POTTING.

The process of potting consists in reducing cooked animal substances to a pulp, by beating the meat in a mortar, and incorporating the mass with a portion of salt and spices. The pulp is then put into a jar, and covered with a thick coat of melted butter or lard, to prevent the contact of air; and the surface is further protected with a bladder-skin tied over the mouth of the jar. The muscular part of meat is best suited for potting, and the quantity of salt and spices ought to be rather liberal

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POTTED BEEF, GAME, OR POULTRY.

POTTED BEEF, GAME, OR POULTRY.

Take three pounds of lean beef, salt it twelve hours with half a pound of common salt, and half an ounce of saltpetre; divide it into pound pieces, and put it into an earthen pan, that will just hold it; pour in half a pint of water; cover it close with paste, and set it in a very slow oven for four hours; when it comes from the oven, pour the gravy from it into a basin, shred the meat fine, moisten it with the gravy poured from the meat, and pound it thoroughly in a marble mortar with fresh but

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POTTED HAM.

POTTED HAM.

Cut a pound of the lean of boiled ham into pieces, pound it in a mortar with fresh butter, in the proportion of about two ounces to a pound of the ham, till it is a fine paste, season it by degrees with pounded mace, pepper, and allspice; put it close down in pots, and cover it with clarified butter a quarter of an inch thick; let it stand one night in a cool place, and tie it over with paper. Veal may be potted in a similar manner....

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POTTED LOBSTER.

POTTED LOBSTER.

Take the meat and eggs from the shell; season it with powdered mace, cloves, nutmeg, pepper, salt, and anchovy liquor. Pound the meat in a marble mortar, and reduce the liquor, by evaporation, to a thick jelly; then put it and the meat together, with about one quarter of its weight of butter. Mix all together, and press it into a small pot; cover it with melted butter. When it is cold, put paper over the pots, and set them in a dry place. Craw fish, crabs, shrimps, and prawns, may be potted in t

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PRESERVATION OF EGGS.

PRESERVATION OF EGGS.

Eggs may be kept for three or four months, or more, if the pores of the shell be closed, and rendered impervious to air by some unctuous application. We generally anoint them with mutton-suet, melted, and set them on end, wedged close together, in bran, stratum super stratum , the containing box being closely covered. Another method of preserving eggs is, to place them into a vessel containing lime water, or more properly slacked quicklime diluted with water, to the consistence of a thin cream,

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PRESERVATIVE EFFECT OF FROST, ON BUTCHER’S MEAT, FISH, AND FOWL.

PRESERVATIVE EFFECT OF FROST, ON BUTCHER’S MEAT, FISH, AND FOWL.

The preservative effect of frost on dead animal matter are of the utmost importance to the northern nations, by enabling them to store up a sufficient stock of all manner of animal provisions for their winter supply, and to receive stores from a great distance. There is annually held at St. Petersburg and Moscow what is called the frozen, or winter market, for the sale of provisions solidified by frost. In a vast open square, the bodies of many thousand animals are seen on all sides, piled in py

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PICKLED RED CABBAGE.

PICKLED RED CABBAGE.

Put sliced red cabbage into a stone jar, and strew amongst it common salt; then heat vinegar nearly to a boiling point, and pour it over the cabbage, in a sufficient quantity to cover the sliced leaves. It is customary to add long pepper, allspice, and ginger, to the vinegar, which impart to the pickle a pungent taste. A small quantity of powdered cochineal is also frequently added, with an intent to give to the cabbage a beautiful red colour; the cochineal should be strewed amongst the sliced l

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PICKLED ONIONS.

PICKLED ONIONS.

For this pickle the small white round onions, of the size of a child’s playing marble, are usually chosen. Having peeled off the exterior brown coat of the onions, simmer them in water, till their outer layers have acquired a semi-transparency, (not longer), then strain off the water, and suffer the onions to dry; put them into an unglazed earthen jar and pour over them so much colourless vinegar, previously heated nearly to the boiling point, as will cover them. The seasoning spices usually add

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PICKLED WALNUTS.

PICKLED WALNUTS.

Take unripe walnuts; run a large needle through each in several places; suffer them to macerate for ten or twelve days, in a strong brine of common salt. When this has been done, decant the brine, transfer the walnuts into a stone jar, and pour vinegar, previously heated nearly to the boiling point, over them, in a sufficient quantity to cover them. They may be seasoned with long pepper, capsicum, ginger, mustard seed, mace, and pimento. These substances should be simmered with the vinegar for a

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PICKLED CUCUMBERS.

PICKLED CUCUMBERS.

Perforate fresh gathered cucumbers, with a needle, or fork, put them into a stone jar, and pour over them boiling hot vinegar. Season with salt, pimento, long pepper, and ginger. These substances should be simmered with the vinegar for a few minutes. To this pickle is sometimes intentionally given a lively green colour, by copper, and numerous fatal consequences are known to have ensued from the use of such a practice. [36] [36] Treatise on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons, 1821.—“P

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PICKLED RED BEET-ROOT.

PICKLED RED BEET-ROOT.

Boil the root till sufficiently done; peel it and cut it into thin slices. Put it into a stone jar, and pour over it white vinegar, seasoned with long pepper, horse-raddish, cut into small slices, allspice, cloves, and salt....

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PICKLED MUSHROOMS.

PICKLED MUSHROOMS.

Having peeled small button mushrooms, put them in a strong brine of salt for three or four days; strain off the brine, and pour over them boiling hot vinegar: season with long pepper, ginger, and mace....

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PICKLED ARTICHOKE.

PICKLED ARTICHOKE.

Take large fresh gathered artichokes, boil and simmer them till they are nearly tender, remove the leaves and choke, and put the bottom part of the artichoke in a salt brine for about forty-eight hours; then strain off the brine, put the artichoke into a jar, and cover it with vinegar, previously heated to the boiling point, and seasoned with pepper, salt, eschalots, and mace....

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SOUR KRAUT.

SOUR KRAUT.

M. Parmentier has given a minute description of a process of making sour kraut on the large scale. The heads of white winter cabbages, after removing the outer leaves, are to be cut into fine shreds, by means of a knife, or with a plane, and spread out to dry upon a cloth in the shade. A cask is to be set on end, with the head taken out. If it formerly contained vinegar or wine, so much the better, as it will promote the fermentation, and give the cabbage a more vinous taste; if not, the inside

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MUSHROOM CATSUP.

MUSHROOM CATSUP.

The name of catsup is given to several kinds of liquid pickles, made of savoury vegetable substances, such as mushrooms, walnuts, &amp;c. The following method of preparing mushroom catsup is copied from the Cook’s Oracle:— Take full grown mushrooms; put a layer of them at the bottom of a deep earthen pan, and sprinkle them with salt, then another layer of mushrooms, put some more salt on them, and so on, alternately, salt and mushrooms; let them remain two or three hours, by which time the s

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TOMATA CATSUP.

TOMATA CATSUP.

Mash a gallon of ripe tomatas; add to it one pound of salt, press out the juice, and to each quart add a quarter of a pound of anchovies, two ounces of eshallots, and an ounce of ground black pepper; simmer the mixture for a quarter of an hour; then strain it through a sieve, and put to it a quarter of an ounce of pounded mace, the same quantity of allspice, ginger, and nutmeg, and half a drachm of cochineal; let the whole simmer for twenty minutes, and strain it through a bag: when cold, bottle

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WALNUT CATSUP.

WALNUT CATSUP.

Take 28 lbs. of unripe walnuts when quite tender, reduce them to a pulp in a marble mortar; add to the mass two gallons of vinegar; let it stand three or four days; to each gallon of liquor, put a quarter of a pound of minced eshallots, half an ounce of bruised cloves, the same of mace and black pepper, one tea-spoonful of Cayenne pepper, and a quarter of a pound of salt: give it a boil up, and strain it through a flannel. The preserving of the pulpy fruits employed in housekeeping for making fr

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CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS WITHOUT SUGAR.

CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS WITHOUT SUGAR.

The following fruits may be conserved without sugar. The more juicy fruits of the berry kind, such as currants, mulberries, strawberries, raspberries, are not well calculated for this process. METHOD OF CONSERVING GOOSEBERRIES, Orlean Plums Green Gages Damsons Peaches Nectarines Bullaces. Let the fruit be clean picked, and not too ripe, put it into wide-mouthed, or what are called gooseberry bottles, let the bottles be filled as full as they can be packed, and stick the corks lightly into them

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CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF SUGAR, IN A LIQUID STATE.

CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF SUGAR, IN A LIQUID STATE.

A great number of fruits in their natural state may be conserved in a fluid, transparent syrup, of such a consistence as will prevent them from spoiling. This method of conserving fruits requires some care; for if they are too little impregnated with sugar, they do not keep, and if the syrup is too concentrated, the sugar crystallizes, and thus spoils the conserved fruit. METHOD OF CONSERVING APRICOTS BY MEANS OF SUGAR. Plums Damsons Green Gages Peaches Nectarines. Take apricots, not too rip

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CONSERVED PINE APPLES.

CONSERVED PINE APPLES.

Break off the top and stalk of the pine apple, cut the fruit into slices, about one-fifth of an inch in thickness; put the slices into an earthenware jar, at the bottom of which has been previously put a layer of powdered lump sugar, about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. Place on this stratum of sugar, a layer of the slices of the fruit, then put another layer of sugar, and so on; lastly, put the jar up to the neck into a saucepan of boiling water, and keep the water boiling for about half a

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CONSERVED PEARS.

CONSERVED PEARS.

Put peeled pears in a stone pan with water, let them simmer till they are soft, skim them, and when cold simmer them for about ten minutes in a syrup made of three parts by measure, of water, and one by weight of loaf sugar, let them remain in the syrup till the next day; then pour off the syrup from the pears, simmer them again for about ten minutes, and repeat the simmering in the syrup three or four times successively. They are usually coloured red by powdered cochineal, a small portion of wh

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CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF SUGAR, IN A SOLID FORM.

CONSERVATION OF RECENT FRUITS, BY MEANS OF SUGAR, IN A SOLID FORM.

The name of candied fruits , or comfits , is given to such substances as are preserved by means of sugar in a solid state, so that the whole substance is impregnated and covered with sugar, in a crystalline, or solid state....

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CANDIED ORANGE, OR LEMON PEEL.

CANDIED ORANGE, OR LEMON PEEL.

Soak Seville orange peel, well cleaned from the pulp in several waters, till it loses its bitterness; cut it into thin slips, simmer them in a syrup composed of two parts, by weight, of lump sugar, and one of water, and continue the simmering till they are become tender, and nearly transparent. Then take them out, put them aside for about twenty-four hours; and simmer them again in a sufficient quantity of a syrup composed of six ounces, by measure, of water, and one pound of loaf sugar, and con

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BLACK CURRANT PASTE.

BLACK CURRANT PASTE.

Mash the currants in a bowl or marble mortar, so as to break all the berries without materially bruising the seeds; put the mass into a saucepan, and heat it nearly to the boiling point; then rub it through a sieve to separate the seeds. To one pint measure of the pulpy juice, add one pound and a half of loaf sugar, let the mixture simmer gently over the fire, and keep stirring it to prevent it burning at the bottom of the pan. Continue the simmering till the mass, when cold, assumes the consist

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RASPBERRY PASTE.

RASPBERRY PASTE.

Mash the raspberries, and having heated the mass in a saucepan, pass it through a splinter sieve; simmer the mass gently to the consistence of a paste, and to every pound and a quarter of the pulp, add one pound and a half of powdered loaf sugar, and proceed as before directed.— See black currant paste....

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ORANGE AND LEMON PASTE.

ORANGE AND LEMON PASTE.

Squeeze out the juice of Seville oranges, and boil the rinds in water till they are tender enough to be crushed between the finger; scoop out the pulp of the fruit, and put it aside; pound the rind, in a mortar, to form a smooth mass, pass it through a splinter sieve; add to it the juice, and keep it on the fire till the mass acquires the consistence of a paste; then take it off, weigh it, and to every pound and a quarter add two pounds of powdered loaf sugar; mix and finish it like black curran

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APRICOT JAM.

APRICOT JAM.

Take ripe apricots, cut them into pieces, and remove the stones; mash the fruit in a marble mortar, to form it into a smooth pulp; heat it over the fire, and when nearly boiling hot, rub it through a splinter sieve; add to one pint, by measure, of the pulp, one pound of powdered sugar; stir the mixture together, and suffer it to simmer over the fire till it comes clear from the bottom of the pan, taking care to stir the mixture all the time....

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ORANGE MARMALADE.

ORANGE MARMALADE.

Marmalades scarcely differ from jams. This name is applied to those comfitures which are composed of the firmer fruits, such as quinces, pine-apples, &amp;c.; whereas jams are made of the more juicy, esculent berries, such as strawberries, currants, mulberries, &amp;c. Cut the oranges into pieces, remove the pulp, squeeze it through a sieve, and measure it. Boil the rind in water till it is quite soft, then clear it from the interior side of the white pulpy mass, so that nothing but the

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PEACH MARMALADE.

PEACH MARMALADE.

Peel the peaches and take out the stones, simmer them till half done, then drain them, reduce them to a pulp, and squeeze the mass through a coarse splinter sieve. Weigh the pulp, and to every pound add twelve ounces of powdered loaf sugar; simmer the mass till it has acquired a stiff pasty consistence....

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PINE APPLE MARMALADE.

PINE APPLE MARMALADE.

Cut the fruit into small pieces, pound it in a mortar, and pass the mass through a coarse splinter sieve; weigh the pulp, and add to every pound three-quarters of a pound of powdered loaf sugar, and six ounces of water, and simmer it as before described....

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APRICOT MARMALADE.

APRICOT MARMALADE.

Boil ripe apricots in water till they can be crushed between the fingers, then take them out, extract the stones, reduce the fruit to a pulp, and pass the mass through a sieve; weigh the pulp, and to every pound take three-quarters of a pound of loaf sugar; simmer it till it hangs on the spoon, like a stiff jelly. Quince marmalade may be prepared in a like manner....

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FRUIT JELLIES

FRUIT JELLIES

Are compounds of the juices of fruits combined with sugar, concentrated by boiling to such a consistence, that the liquid, upon cooling, assumes the form of a tremulous glue. In the preparation of jellies, care must be taken not to boil it too long, as it looses by this means the property of gelatinising, and assumes the form of mucilage, the danger of this is greatest when the quantity of sugar is too small to absorb the water of the juice. Fruit jellies should not be kept in glazed earthenware

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CURRANT JELLY.

CURRANT JELLY.

Mash the currants, and pass them through a splinter sieve, put the pulp on the fire, stir it with a spoon till it begins to boil, then strain the mass through a flannel bag to render the juice clear; measure it, and to a pint put one pound and a half of loaf sugar, and let it simmer very gently, till you see, by dipping a spoon or skimmer in the jelly, and again raising it, the jelly forms a web upon it, which, if simmered enough, will remain on the skimmer. Then take it off the fire, let it sta

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RASPBERRY JELLY.

RASPBERRY JELLY.

The juice of this fruit does not gelatinize readily on account of the quantity of mucilage which it contains; hence, for preparing a jelly by means of this fruit, it is necessary to add to one part of raspberries at least two parts of red or white currant juice. The jelly may then be obtained by following the directions stated for making currant jelly....

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BARBERRY JELLY.

BARBERRY JELLY.

Pick the barberries from the stalks, mash them, and having heated the mass in a saucepan throw it into a flannel bag, to strain off the juice. To one pint of the clear juice add one pound and a half of loaf sugar, simmer it with a gentle heat till it gelatinizes....

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GOOSEBERRY JELLY.

GOOSEBERRY JELLY.

Take two quarts of bruised gooseberries, simmer the mass with one pint and a half of water for about a quarter of an hour, then put it into a flannel bag to strain off the juice, and to one pint add one pound and a half of lump sugar; simmer it, as stated under the article currant jelly....

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APPLE JELLY.

APPLE JELLY.

Pare four pounds of russettins or any other sub-acid apples, cut them into small pieces, and boil them in two quarts of water, till they become quite soft, then put them into a sieve, strain off the liquid, and run it through a flannel bag to render it clear; measure it, and to one pint of the liquid add one pound and a half of sugar, and finish the jelly as before directed. See Currant Jelly....

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QUINCE AND APRICOT JELLY

QUINCE AND APRICOT JELLY

May be prepared in a similar manner....

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FRUIT SYRUPS.

FRUIT SYRUPS.

A weak syrup has a tendency to ferment and quickly become sour if kept in a temperate degree of heat; it is therefore not calculated to prevent the natural fermentation of vegetable juices, which always increase its tendency to corrupt. Pharmaceutists have ascertained that a solution, prepared by dissolving two parts of double refined sugar in one of water, or any watery fluid, and boiling the solution a little, forms a syrup, which neither ferments nor crystallizes; and this proportion may be c

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LEMON SYRUP.

LEMON SYRUP.

Take a pint of fresh lemon juice, add to it two pounds of lump sugar; simmer it for a few minutes, and remove the scum till the surface is quite clean, then add an ounce of thin cut lemon-peel; let them all simmer very gently for a few minutes, and strain it through a flannel. When cool, bottle, and keep it in a cool place....

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ORANGE SYRUP.

ORANGE SYRUP.

Squeeze the oranges, and strain the juice from the pulp; to a pint of the juice, add two pounds of sugar; give it a boil, skim it well, strain it through a flannel, and let it stand till cold, and then bottle it....

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MULBERRY SYRUP.

MULBERRY SYRUP.

Take Mulberry juice strained, rendered clear by having suffered it to ferment, as directed page 273 , one pint; add to it refined sugar, two pounds; simmer the sugar in the juice, and proceed as directed.— See Currant Syrup....

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RASPBERRY AND CURRANT SYRUP

RASPBERRY AND CURRANT SYRUP

May be prepared in a like manner....

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PRESERVATION AND STORING OF FRUIT,—PRINCIPAL REQUISITES OF A GOOD FRUIT ROOM.

PRESERVATION AND STORING OF FRUIT,—PRINCIPAL REQUISITES OF A GOOD FRUIT ROOM.

In storing fruits, care should be taken not to bruise them. Pears, apples, and all other summer fruit should be placed on shelves singly in a dry and well aired room, and not on moss, hay, or straw, as is often done, because they thereby contract a very disagreeable flavour. It is better to lay the fruit on a clean shelf, covered with a sheet of common writing paper; brown paper gives them a flavour of pitch. The finer large kinds of pears should not be allowed to touch one another, but should b

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PRESERVATION OF RECENT ESCULENT ROOTS, POT-HERBS, AND OTHER CULINARY VEGETABLES.

PRESERVATION OF RECENT ESCULENT ROOTS, POT-HERBS, AND OTHER CULINARY VEGETABLES.

When it is necessary to keep vegetables a few days before they are made use of, care should be taken that they receive as little injury as possible from keeping. The rules are simple and easy:—vegetables of different sorts should not be left in the same bundle, or basket; they should not be washed till they are about to be used; but if they have got flaccid, or dry-shrivelled, and wrinkly, (not otherwise,) they should be immersed in water: but to prevent them becoming so, the best method is not

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METHOD OF MAKING GOOSEBERRY VINEGAR.

METHOD OF MAKING GOOSEBERRY VINEGAR.

Take gooseberries, when full ripe, mash them in a tub or marble mortar, and to every quart of the mashed fruit, put three quarts of water, stir the pulp well together, let it stand 24 hours, and press it through a coarse bag. To every gallon of the strained liquor add four pounds of brown sugar, or four pounds and a half of honey, the latter is preferable; put the mixture into a barrel, which it should fill about three fourths, and add to eight or nine gallons of it one pint of good ale yeast; c

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RASPBERRY VINEGAR.

RASPBERRY VINEGAR.

Take a pound of fine gathered red raspberries, mash them in a wooden bowl, or earthenware pan, add to the pulp a pint and a half of vinegar; make the mixture boiling hot, and strain it through a flannel bag. To every pint of liquor add a pound of lump sugar, suffer it to simmer in an earthen pipkin for about five minutes, and remove the scum as it rises. When cold put it into dry bottles. Or, better mash the raspberries, suffer them to ferment till the juice separates from the pulpy matter; then

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Eschallot Vinegar Burnet Vinegar

Eschallot Vinegar Burnet Vinegar

Put an ounce of red chillies, (capsicum) cut into small pieces, into a bottle containing a pint of vinegar, stop the bottle close, and suffer the chillies to macerate for eight or ten days, and then strain off the clear infusion. Tarragon, mint, or burnet vinegar may be made in a similar way, by suffering four ounces of fresh gathered tarragon, mint, or burnet, (or three ounces) eschallots, to macerate for eight or ten days in a quart of vinegar. The dried leaves of the tea plant, a commodity wi

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NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TEA TREE.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TEA TREE.

The tea tree (Polyandria Monogynia) is a native of China, Japan, and Tonquin, it has never been found growing wild in any other country. Linnæus says, that there are two species of this plant, the Bohe´a, or black, and the Vir´idis, or green tea. The green has much longer leaves than the black, it is a more hardy plant; and, with very little protection, bears the severity of our winters. The tea is planted in China round borders of fields, without regard to the soil. The tree attains the height

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE ART OF MAKING TEA, AND SINGULAR EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF TEA POTS, ON THE INFUSION OF TEA.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ART OF MAKING TEA, AND SINGULAR EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF TEA POTS, ON THE INFUSION OF TEA.

It has been long observed, that the infusion of tea, made in silver or polished metal tea-pots, is stronger than that which is produced in black, or other kinds of earthenware pots. This remark is explained on the principles, that polished surfaces retain heat much better than dark rough surfaces, and that, consequently, the caloric being confined in the former case, must act more powerfully than in the latter. It is further certain, that the silver or metal pot, when filled a second time, produ

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JAPANESE METHOD OF MAKING TEA.

JAPANESE METHOD OF MAKING TEA.

The people of Japan reduce their tea to a fine powder, which they dilute with warm water until it has acquired the consistence of a thin soup. Their manner of serving tea is as follows:—They place before the company the tea-equipage, and the caddy in which this powder is contained; they fill the cups with warm water, and taking from the caddy as much powder as the point of a knife can contain, throw it into each of the cups, and stir it, until the liquor begins to foam; it is then presented to t

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NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COFFEE TREE.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COFFEE TREE.

The tree which produces coffee contains ten species, chiefly natives of the East Indies, South America, and the Polynesian isles. The only species, however, that we have to notice in the present work is the coffee Arabica, of which there are two varieties, though both are sold in our shops as Turkey coffee, and possess similar qualities. The tree seldom rises more than 16 or 18 feet high, with an erect main stem, covered with a lightish brown bark: the leaves are oblong-ovate, and pointed; the f

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BEST METHOD OF MAKING COFFEE.

BEST METHOD OF MAKING COFFEE.

The general use of tea among us, has caused the inhabitants of Great Britain to be in general far inferior than their neighbours on the continent in the art of preparing the beverage called coffee. The coloured water commonly drank in England under this name, is as much the object of derision to foreigners, as their soup maigre is to us; hence a lively French writer says, “The English do not care about the quality of coffee, if they can but get enough of it.” Coffee certainly is almost universal

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STEWPANS AND SAUCEPANS

STEWPANS AND SAUCEPANS

Should not be made with flat bottoms, but rounded a little at the edges—they must by no means be made with corners that are square like tin vessels, for such can never be completely cleaned, and do not wear near so long—that is the sides should not be soldered to the bottom with a square joint, as sand and grease that lodge there can never be completely got out. These utensils should be scoured on the outside round the rim, and a little way down the sides, but not low on the sides or on the bott

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PRESERVING PANS.

PRESERVING PANS.

The best sort are those which are heated by means of steam, the temperature of which can never be such as to burn, or cause adherence to the bottom of the pan.— Fig. 3 , exhibits a steam preserving-pan; the steam enters from a common steam-boiler, at the extremity a , and passes between the pan, which is double, as shown in the design. The condensed water may, from time to time, be drawn off by the cock and pipe b ....

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COPPER COOKING UTENSILS.

COPPER COOKING UTENSILS.

Copper cooking utensils are attended with so much danger, that the use of them ought to be laid entirely aside. They have not only occasioned many fatal accidents, (which have been made public), but they have injured the health of great numbers, where the slower, but not less dangerous effect has not been observed. If not kept very clean and bright, they become covered with verdigris, for all fat, oily, or buttery substances corrode copper; and if they are kept clean and bright, the rubbing or s

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