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PROTESTANTISM AND CATHOLICITY COMPARED IN THEIR EFFECTS ON THE CIVILIZATION OF EUROPE.
PROTESTANTISM AND CATHOLICITY COMPARED IN THEIR EFFECTS ON THE CIVILIZATION OF EUROPE.
WRITTEN IN SPANISH BY THE REV. J. BALMES. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH. Second Edition. BALTIMORE: PUBLISHED BY JOHN MURPHY & CO . No. 178 MARKET STREET. PITTSBURG: GEORGE QUIGLEY . Sold by Booksellers generally. 1851 . Entered , according to the Act of Congress, in the year eighteen hundred and fifty, by John Murphy & Co. , in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maryland....
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AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
Among the many and important evils which have been the necessary result of the profound revolutions of modern times, there appears a good extremely valuable to science, and which will probably have a beneficial influence on the human race,—I mean the love of studies having for their object man and society. The shocks have been so rude, that the earth has, as it were, opened under our feet; and the human mind, which, full of pride and haughtiness, but lately advanced on a triumphal car amid accla
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PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
The work of Balmes on the comparative influence of Protestantism and Catholicity on European civilization, which is now presented to the American public, was written in Spanish, and won for the author among his own countrymen a very high reputation. A French edition was published simultaneously with the Spanish, and the work has since been translated into the Italian and English languages, and been widely circulated as one of the most learned productions of the age, and most admirably suited to
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NOTICE OF THE AUTHOR.
NOTICE OF THE AUTHOR.
James Balmes was born at Vich, a small city in Catalonia, in Spain, on the 28th of August, 1810. His parents were poor, but noted for their industry and religion, and they took care to train him from his childhood to habits of rigid piety. Every morning, after the holy sacrifice of mass, his mother prostrate before an altar dedicated to St. Thomas of Aquin, implored this illustrious doctor to obtain for her son the gifts of sanctity and knowledge. Her prayers were not disappointed. From seven to
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CHAPTER I. NAME AND NATURE OF PROTESTANTISM.
CHAPTER I. NAME AND NATURE OF PROTESTANTISM.
There is a fact in existence among civilized nations, very important on account of the nature of the things which it affects—a fact of transcendent importance, on account of the number, variety, and consequence of its influences—a fact extremely interesting, because it is connected with the principal events of modern history. This fact is Protestantism. Like a clap of thunder, it attracted at once the attention of all Europe; on one side it spread alarm, and on the other excited the most lively
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CHAPTER II. CAUSES OF PROTESTANTISM.
CHAPTER II. CAUSES OF PROTESTANTISM.
What, then, were the causes of the appearance of Protestantism in Europe, of its development, and of its success? This is a question well worthy of being examined to the bottom, because it will lead us to inquire into the origin of this great evil, and will put us in a condition to form the best idea of this phenomenon, so often but so imperfectly described. It would be unreasonable to look for the causes of an event of this nature and importance, in circumstances either trivial in themselves, o
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CHAPTER III. EXTRAORDINARY PHENOMENON IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
CHAPTER III. EXTRAORDINARY PHENOMENON IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
The proposition contained in the concluding lines of the last chapter suggests a corollary, which, if I am not mistaken, offers a new demonstration of the divine origin of the Catholic Church. Her existence for eighteen centuries, in spite of so many powerful adversaries, has always been regarded as a most extraordinary thing. Another prodigy, too little attended to, and of not less importance when the nature of the human mind is taken into account, is, the unity of the Church's doctrines, perva
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CHAPTER IV. PROTESTANTISM AND THE MIND.
CHAPTER IV. PROTESTANTISM AND THE MIND.
This fixedness of idea, this unanimity of will, this wisdom and constancy of plan, this progress with a firm step towards a definite object and end; and, in fine, this admirable unity, acknowledged in favor of Catholicism by M. Guizot himself, have not been imitated by Protestantism, either in good or evil. Protestantism, indeed, has not a single idea, of which it can say: "This is my own." It has attempted to appropriate to itself the principle of private judgment in matters of faith; and if se
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CHAPTER V. INSTINCT OF FAITH IN THE SCIENCES.
CHAPTER V. INSTINCT OF FAITH IN THE SCIENCES.
The truth of what I have just advanced with respect to the weakness of our intellect, is proved by the fact that the hand of God has placed at the bottom of our souls a preservative against the excessive changeability of our minds, even in things which do not regard religion. Without this preservative all social institutions would be destroyed, or rather never would have had existence; without it the sciences would not have advanced a step, and when it had disappeared from the human heart, indiv
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CHAPTER VI. DIFFERENCES IN THE RELIGIOUS WANTS OF NATIONS—MATHEMATICS—MORAL SCIENCES.
CHAPTER VI. DIFFERENCES IN THE RELIGIOUS WANTS OF NATIONS—MATHEMATICS—MORAL SCIENCES.
The progress of society, and the high degree of civilization and refinement to which modern nations have attained, will no doubt be urged against the authority which seeks to exercise jurisdiction over the mind. In this way men will attempt to justify what they call the emancipation of the human mind. For my own part, this objection seems to have so little solidity, and to be so little supported by facts, that, from the progress of society, I should, on the contrary, conclude that there is the m
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CHAPTER VII. INDIFFERENCE AND FANATICISM.
CHAPTER VII. INDIFFERENCE AND FANATICISM.
In rejecting the authority of the Church, and in adopting this resistance as its only principle, Protestantism was compelled to seek its whole support in man; thus to mistake the true character of the human mind, and its relations with religious and moral truth, was to throw itself, according to circumstances, into the opposite extremes of fanaticism and indifference. It may seem strange that these opposite errors should emanate from the same source; and yet nothing is more certain. Protestantis
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CHAPTER VIII. FANATICISM—ITS DEFINITION.—FANATICISM IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
CHAPTER VIII. FANATICISM—ITS DEFINITION.—FANATICISM IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
It would be unjust to charge a religion with falsehood, merely because fanatics are to be found within its bosom. This would be to reject all, because none are to be found exempt from them. A religion, then, is not to be condemned because it has them, but because it produces them, urges them on, and opens a field for them. If we observe closely, we shall find at the bottom of the human heart an abundant source of fanaticism; the history of man affords us many proofs of this incontestable truth.
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CHAPTER IX. INFIDELITY AND INDIFFERENCE IN EUROPE, THE FRUITS OF PROTESTANTISM.
CHAPTER IX. INFIDELITY AND INDIFFERENCE IN EUROPE, THE FRUITS OF PROTESTANTISM.
The fanaticism of sects, which is excited, kept alive, and nourished in Europe, by the private judgment of Protestantism, is certainly an evil of the greatest magnitude; yet it is not so mischievous or alarming as the infidelity and religious indifference for which modern society is indebted to the pretended Reformation. Brought on by the scandalous extravagances of so many sects of soi-disant Christians, infidelity and religious indifference, which have their root even in the very principle of
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CHAPTER X. CAUSES OF THE CONTINUANCE OF PROTESTANTISM.
CHAPTER X. CAUSES OF THE CONTINUANCE OF PROTESTANTISM.
After having clearly shown the intrinsic weakness of Protestantism, it is natural to ask this question: If it be so feeble, owing to the radical defects of its constitution, why has it not by this time completely disappeared? If it bear in its own breast the seeds of death, how has it been able so long to withstand such powerful adversaries, as Catholicity, on the one hand, and irreligion or Atheism, on the other? In order to resolve this question satisfactorily, it is necessary to consider Prot
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CHAPTER XI. THE POSITIVE DOCTRINES OF PROTESTANTISM REPUGNANT TO THE INSTINCT OF CIVILIZATION.
CHAPTER XI. THE POSITIVE DOCTRINES OF PROTESTANTISM REPUGNANT TO THE INSTINCT OF CIVILIZATION.
The best proof of the extreme weakness of Protestantism, considered as a body of doctrine, is the little influence which its positive doctrines have exercised in European civilization. I call its positive doctrines those which it attempts to establish as its own; and I distinguish them thus from its other doctrines, which I call negative, because they are nothing but the negation of authority. The latter found favor on account of their conformity with the inconstancy and changeableness of the hu
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CHAPTER XII. THE EFFECTS WHICH THE INTRODUCTION OF PROTESTANTISM INTO SPAIN WOULD HAVE PRODUCED.
CHAPTER XII. THE EFFECTS WHICH THE INTRODUCTION OF PROTESTANTISM INTO SPAIN WOULD HAVE PRODUCED.
In order to judge of the real effect which the introduction of Protestant doctrines would have had in Spain, we shall do well, in the first place, to take a survey of the present state of religion in Europe. In spite of the confusion of ideas which is one of the prevailing characteristics of the age, it is undeniable that the spirit of infidelity and irreligion has lost much of its strength, and that where it still exists it has merged into indifference, instead of preserving its systematic form
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CHAPTER XIII. CATHOLICITY AND PROTESTANTISM IN RELATION TO SOCIAL PROGRESS. PRELIMINARY COUP D'ŒIL.
CHAPTER XIII. CATHOLICITY AND PROTESTANTISM IN RELATION TO SOCIAL PROGRESS. PRELIMINARY COUP D'ŒIL.
After having placed Catholicity and Protestantism in contrast, in a religious point of view, in the picture which I have just drawn; after having shown the superiority of the one over the other, not only in certainty, but also in all that regards the instincts, the feelings, the ideas, the characteristics of the human mind, it seems to me proper to approach another question, certainly not less important, but much less understood, and in the examination of which we shall have to contend against s
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CHAPTER XIV. DID THERE EXIST AT THE EPOCH WHEN CHRISTIANITY APPEARED ANY OTHER PRINCIPLE OF REGENERATION?
CHAPTER XIV. DID THERE EXIST AT THE EPOCH WHEN CHRISTIANITY APPEARED ANY OTHER PRINCIPLE OF REGENERATION?
In what condition did Christianity find the world? This is a question which ought to fix all our attention, if we wish to appreciate correctly the blessings conferred by that divine religion on individuals and on society, if we are desirous of knowing the real character of Christian civilization. Certainly at the time when Christianity appeared, society presented a dark picture. Covered with fine appearances, but infected to the heart with a mortal malady, it presented an image of the most repug
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CHAPTER XV. DIFFICULTIES WHICH CHRISTIANITY HAD TO OVERCOME IN THE WORK OF SOCIAL REGENERATION.—OF SLAVERY.—COULD IT BE DESTROYED WITH MORE PROMPTNESS THAN IT WAS BY CHRISTIANITY?
CHAPTER XV. DIFFICULTIES WHICH CHRISTIANITY HAD TO OVERCOME IN THE WORK OF SOCIAL REGENERATION.—OF SLAVERY.—COULD IT BE DESTROYED WITH MORE PROMPTNESS THAN IT WAS BY CHRISTIANITY?
Although the Church attached the greatest importance to the propagation of truth, although she was convinced that to destroy the shapeless mass of immorality and degradation that met her sight, her first care should be to expose error to the dissolving fire of true doctrines, she did not confine herself to this; but, descending to real life, and following a system full of wisdom and prudence, she acted in such a manner as to enable humanity to taste the precious fruit which the doctrines of Jesu
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CHAPTER XVI. IDEAS AND MANNERS OF ANTIQUITY WITH RESPECT TO SLAVERY.—THE CHURCH BEGINS BY IMPROVING THE CONDITION OF SLAVES.
CHAPTER XVI. IDEAS AND MANNERS OF ANTIQUITY WITH RESPECT TO SLAVERY.—THE CHURCH BEGINS BY IMPROVING THE CONDITION OF SLAVES.
Happily the Catholic Church was wiser than philosophers; she knew how to confer on humanity the benefit of emancipation, without injustice or revolution. She knew how to regenerate society, but not in rivers of blood. Let us see what was her conduct with respect to the abolition of slavery. Much has been already said of the spirit of love and fraternity which animates Christianity, and that is sufficient to show that its influence in this work must have been great. But perhaps sufficient care ha
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CHAPTER XVII. MEANS EMPLOYED BY THE CHURCH TO ENFRANCHISE SLAVES.
CHAPTER XVII. MEANS EMPLOYED BY THE CHURCH TO ENFRANCHISE SLAVES.
While improving the condition of slaves and assimilating it as much as possible to that of freemen, it was necessary not to forget the universal emancipation; for it was not enough to ameliorate slavery, it was necessary to abolish it. The mere force of Christian notions, and the spirit of charity which was spread at the same time with them over the world, made so violent an attack on the state of slavery, that they were sure sooner or later to bring about its complete abolition. It is impossibl
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CHAPTER XVIII. CONTINUATION OF THE SAME SUBJECT.
CHAPTER XVIII. CONTINUATION OF THE SAME SUBJECT.
The conduct of the Church with respect to the Jews also contributed to the abolition of slavery. This singular people, who bear on their forehead the mark of proscription, and are found dispersed among all nations, like fragments of insoluble matter floating in a liquid, seek to console themselves in their misfortune by accumulating treasures, and appear to wish to avenge themselves for the contemptuous neglect in which they are left by other nations, by gaining possession of their wealth by mea
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CHAPTER XIX. DOCTRINES OF S. AUGUSTINE AND S. THOMAS AQUINAS ON THE SUBJECT OF SLAVERY.—RÉSUMÉ OF THE SUBJECT.
CHAPTER XIX. DOCTRINES OF S. AUGUSTINE AND S. THOMAS AQUINAS ON THE SUBJECT OF SLAVERY.—RÉSUMÉ OF THE SUBJECT.
Thus did the Church, by a variety of means, break the chains of slavery, without ever exceeding the limits marked out by justice and prudence: thus did she banish from among Christians that degrading condition, so contrary to their exalted ideas on the dignity of man, and their generous feelings of fraternity and love. Wherever Christianity shall be introduced, chains of iron shall be turned into gentle ties, and humiliated men shall raise their ennobled heads. With what pleasure do we read the
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CHAPTER XX. CONTRAST BETWEEN TWO ORDERS OF CIVILIZATION.
CHAPTER XX. CONTRAST BETWEEN TWO ORDERS OF CIVILIZATION.
WE have seen that European civilization owes to the Catholic Church its finest ornament, its most valuable victory in the cause of humanity, the abolition of slavery. It was the Church that, by her doctrines, as beneficent as elevated, by a system as efficacious as prudent, by her unbounded generosity, her indefatigable zeal, her invincible firmness, abolished slavery in Europe; that is to say, she took the first step towards the regeneration of humanity, and laid the first stone for the wide an
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CHAPTER XXI. OF THE INDIVIDUAL—OF THE FEELING OF INDIVIDUAL INDEPENDENCE ACCORDING TO M. GUIZOT.
CHAPTER XXI. OF THE INDIVIDUAL—OF THE FEELING OF INDIVIDUAL INDEPENDENCE ACCORDING TO M. GUIZOT.
THE individual is the first and simplest element of society. If the individual is not well constituted, if he is ill understood and ill appreciated, there will always be an obstacle to the progress of real civilization. First of all, we must observe, that we speak here only of the individual, of man as he is in himself, apart from the numerous relations which surround him when we come to consider him as a member of society. But let it not be imagined from this, that I wish to consider him in a s
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CHAPTER XXII. HOW THE INDIVIDUAL WAS ABSORBED BY ANCIENT SOCIETY.
CHAPTER XXII. HOW THE INDIVIDUAL WAS ABSORBED BY ANCIENT SOCIETY.
IF we profoundly study this question, without suffering ourselves to be led into error and extravagance, by the desire of passing for deep observers; if we call to our aid a just and cool philosophy, supported by the facts of history, we shall see that the principal difference between the ancient civilizations and our own with respect to the individual is, that, in antiquity, man, considered as man, was not properly esteemed . Ancient nations did not want either the feeling of personal independe
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CHAPTER XXIII. THE PROGRESS OF INDIVIDUALITY UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICITY.
CHAPTER XXIII. THE PROGRESS OF INDIVIDUALITY UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICITY.
IF we give a just and legitimate meaning to the word individuality, taking the feeling of personal independence in an acceptation which is not repugnant to the perfection of the individual, and does not oppose the constitutive principles of all society; moreover, if we seek the various causes which have influenced the development of this feeling, without speaking of that which we have already pointed out as one of the most important, viz. the true notion of man, and his connections with his fell
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CHAPTER XXIV. OF THE FAMILY.—MONOGAMY.—INDISSOLUBILITY OF THE CONJUGAL TIE.
CHAPTER XXIV. OF THE FAMILY.—MONOGAMY.—INDISSOLUBILITY OF THE CONJUGAL TIE.
WE have seen what the individual owes to Catholicity; let us now see what the family owes her. It is clear that the individual, being the first element of the family, if it is Catholicity which has tended to perfect him, the improvement of the family will thus have been very much her work; but without insisting on this inference, I wish to consider the conjugal tie in itself, for which purpose it is necessary to call attention to woman. I will not repeat here what she was among the Romans, and w
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CHAPTER XXV. OF THE PASSION OF LOVE.
CHAPTER XXV. OF THE PASSION OF LOVE.
But it will be said to Catholics, "Do you not see that your doctrines are too hard and rigorous? They do not consider the weakness and inconstancy of the human heart, and require sacrifices above its strength. Is it not cruel to attempt to subject the most tender affections, the most delicate feelings, to the rigor of a principle? Cruel doctrine, which endeavors to hold together, bound to each other by a fatal tie, those who no longer love, who feel a mutual disgust, who perhaps hate each other
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CHAPTER XXVI. VIRGINITY IN ITS SOCIAL ASPECT.
CHAPTER XXVI. VIRGINITY IN ITS SOCIAL ASPECT.
We have seen, in the fifteenth chapter, with what jealousy Catholicity endeavors to veil the secrets of modesty; with what perseverance she imposes the restraint of morality on the most impetuous passion of the human heart. She shows us all the importance which belongs to the contrary virtue, by crowning with peerless splendor the total abstinence from sensual pleasure, viz. virginity. Frivolous minds, and principally those who are inspired by a voluptuous heart, do not understand how much Catho
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CHAPTER XXVII. OF CHIVALRY AND BARBARIAN MANNERS, IN THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE CONDITION OF WOMEN.
CHAPTER XXVII. OF CHIVALRY AND BARBARIAN MANNERS, IN THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE CONDITION OF WOMEN.
An indefatigable zeal for the sanctity of marriage, and an anxious solicitude to carry the principle of modesty to the highest degree of delicacy, are the two rules which have guided Catholicity in her efforts for the elevation of woman. These are the two great means she has employed in attaining her object, and hence comes the influence and importance of women in Europe. M. Guizot is, therefore, wrong in saying that "it is to the development, to the necessary preponderance of domestic manners i
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CHAPTER XXVIII. OF THE PUBLIC CONSCIENCE IN GENERAL.
CHAPTER XXVIII. OF THE PUBLIC CONSCIENCE IN GENERAL.
When enumerating, in the twentieth chapter, the characteristics which mark European civilization, I pointed out, as one of them, "an admirable public conscience, rich in sublime maxims of morality, in rules of justice and equity, in sentiments of honor and dignity, a conscience which survives the shipwreck of private morality, and does not allow the open corruption to go so far as it did in ancient times." We must now explain more at length in what this public conscience consists, what is its or
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CHAPTER XXIX. OF THE PRINCIPLE OF PUBLIC CONSCIENCE ACCORDING TO MONTESQUIEU—HONOR—VIRTUE.
CHAPTER XXIX. OF THE PRINCIPLE OF PUBLIC CONSCIENCE ACCORDING TO MONTESQUIEU—HONOR—VIRTUE.
Montesquieu has said that republics are preserved by virtue, and monarchies by honor. He observes, moreover, that honor renders the censors, who were required among the ancients, unnecessary among us. True it is, that in modern times there are no censors charged with watching over the public morals; but the cause of this is not as stated by this famous publicist. Among Christian nations, the ministers of religion are the natural censors of public morals. The plenitude of this office belongs to t
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CHAPTER XXX. ON THE DIFFERENT INFLUENCE OF PROTESTANTISM AND CATHOLICITY ON THE PUBLIC CONSCIENCE.
CHAPTER XXX. ON THE DIFFERENT INFLUENCE OF PROTESTANTISM AND CATHOLICITY ON THE PUBLIC CONSCIENCE.
We have defined the nature of public conscience; we have pointed out its origin and effects. It now remains to examine whether Protestantism has had any share in forming it, and whether it is fairly entitled to the glory of having been of any service to European civilization on this point. We have already shown that the origin of this public conscience is to be found in Christianity. Now Christianity may be considered under two aspects—as a doctrine, and as an institution intended to realize tha
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CHAPTER XXXI. ON GENTLENESS OF MANNERS IN GENERAL.
CHAPTER XXXI. ON GENTLENESS OF MANNERS IN GENERAL.
A certain general gentleness of manners, which in war prevents great atrocities, and in peace renders life more quiet and agreeable:—such is one of the valuable qualities which I have pointed out as forming the distinguishing characteristics of European civilization. This is a fact which does not require proof; we see and feel it everywhere when we look around; it is evident to all who open the pages of history, and compare our times with any others. Wherein does this gentleness of manners in mo
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CHAPTER XXXII. THE IMPROVEMENT OF MANNERS BY THE ACTION OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER XXXII. THE IMPROVEMENT OF MANNERS BY THE ACTION OF THE CHURCH.
Modern society ought, it would seem, to be distinguished for severity and cruelty, since it was formed from that of the Romans and barbarians, from both of whom it should have inherited these qualities. Who is not aware of the fierce manners of the northern barbarians? The historians of that time have left us statements that make us shudder when we read them. It was believed that the end of the world was at hand; and, indeed, it was excusable to consider the last catastrophe as near, when so man
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CHAPTER XXXIII. ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC BENEFICENCE IN EUROPE.
CHAPTER XXXIII. ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC BENEFICENCE IN EUROPE.
Never will manners be perfectly gentle without the existence of public beneficence; so that gentleness of manners and beneficence, although distinct, are sisters. Public beneficence, properly so called, was unknown among the ancients. Individuals might be beneficent there, but society was without compassion. Thus, the foundation of public establishments of beneficence formed no part of the system of administration among ancient nations. What, then, did they do with the unfortunate? We will answe
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CHAPTER XXXIV. ON TOLERATION IN RELIGIOUS MATTERS.
CHAPTER XXXIV. ON TOLERATION IN RELIGIOUS MATTERS.
The question of the improvement of manners, treated in the preceding chapters, naturally leads me to another, sufficiently thorny in itself, and rendered still more so by innumerable prejudices. I allude to toleration in matters of religion. The word Catholicity, to certain persons, is the synonyme of intole rance; and the confusion of ideas on this point has become such, that no more laborious task can be undertaken than to clear them up. It is only necessary to pronounce the word intolerance,
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CHAPTER XXXV. ON THE RIGHT OF COERCION IN GENERAL.
CHAPTER XXXV. ON THE RIGHT OF COERCION IN GENERAL.
How much, during the last century, was said against intolerance! A philosophy less superficial than that which then prevailed would have reflected a little more on a fact which may be appreciated in different ways, but the existence of which cannot be denied. In Greece, Socrates died drinking hemlock. Rome, whose tolerance has been so much vaunted, tolerated, indeed, foreign gods; but these were only foreign in name, since they formed a part of that system of pantheism which was the foundation o
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CHAPTER XXXVI. ON THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN.
CHAPTER XXXVI. ON THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN.
I find myself naturally led to make a few observations on the intolerance of certain Catholic princes, on the Inquisition, and in particular on that of Spain. I must make a rapid examination of the charges against Catholicity on account of its conduct during the last centuries. The dungeons, the burnings of the Inquisition, and the intolerance of some Catholic princes, have furnished the enemies of the Church with one of their most effective arguments in depreciating her, and rendering her the o
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CHAPTER XXXVII. SECOND EPOCH OF THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN.
CHAPTER XXXVII. SECOND EPOCH OF THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN.
It has been said that Philip II. founded a new Inquisition in Spain, more terrible than that of the Catholic sovereigns; at the same time the Inquisition of Ferdinand and Isabella receives a certain degree of indulgence, which is refused to that of their successors. At the very outset, we find an important historical mistake in this assertion. Philip did not establish a new Inquisition; he maintained that which the Catholic sovereigns had left him, and which Charles V., his father and predecesso
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CHAPTER XXXVIII. RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THEMSELVES.
CHAPTER XXXVIII. RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THEMSELVES.
Religious institutions are another of those points whereon Protestantism and Catholicity are in complete opposition to each other: the first abhors, the second loves them; the one destroys them, the other establishes and encourages them. One of the first acts of Protestantism, whenever it is introduced, is to attack religious institutions by its doctrines and its acts; it labors to destroy them immediately; one would say that the pretended Reformation cannot behold without irritation those holy
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CHAPTER XXXIX. OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN HISTORY.—THE FIRST SOLITARIES.
CHAPTER XXXIX. OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN HISTORY.—THE FIRST SOLITARIES.
I have just examined religious institutions in a general point of view, by considering them in their relations with religion and the human mind. I am now going to take a glance at the principal points of their history. This examination, I think, will show us an important truth: viz. that the appearance of these institutions under different forms has been the expression and the fulfilment of great moral necessities, and a powerful means, in the hands of Providence, of promoting not only the spiri
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CHAPTER XL. ON RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THE EAST.
CHAPTER XL. ON RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THE EAST.
The influence exercised by the lives of the solitaries of the East over religion and morality is beyond a doubt; in truth it is not easy to appreciate it in all its extent and in all its effects; but it is not the less true and real on that account. It has not marked the doctrines of humanity like those thundering events the effects of which are often inadequate to their promises; but it is like a beneficial rain which, diffusing itself gently over the thirsty earth, fertilizes the meadows and t
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CHAPTER XLI. OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THE HISTORY OF THE WEST.
CHAPTER XLI. OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN THE HISTORY OF THE WEST.
Let us now examine religious institutions, such as they appear in the West, but laying aside those which, although established in various parts of the West, were only a sort of ramification of the Eastern monasteries. We observe that the religious establishments among us added to the Gospel spirit, the principle of their foundation, a new character, that of conservative, restorative, and regenerative associations. The monks of the West were not content with sanctifying themselves; from the first
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CHAPTER XLII. OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE MIDDLE AGES.—THE MILITARY ORDERS.
CHAPTER XLII. OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE MIDDLE AGES.—THE MILITARY ORDERS.
The rapid view which we have just taken of religious institutions from the irruption of the barbarians to the twelfth century, has shown us that the monastic foundations, during that time, were a powerful support for that remaining portion of society which was ready to fall to pieces in the universal ruin; an asylum for misfortune, for virtue, and for knowledge; a storehouse for the precious monuments of antiquity, and in some measure an assemblage of civilizing associations, which labored in si
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CHAPTER XLIII. CONTINUATION OF THE SAME SUBJECT—EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
CHAPTER XLIII. CONTINUATION OF THE SAME SUBJECT—EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
Perhaps they who are the most opposed to religious communities may be reconciled to the solitaries of the East, when they perceive in them a class of men who, by practising the most sublime and austere counsels of religion, have communicated a generous impulse to humanity, have raised it from the dust where Paganism had held it, and made it wing its flight towards purer regions. To accustom man to grave and strict morality; to bring back the soul within itself; to give a lively feeling of the di
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CHAPTER XLIV. THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS FOR THE REDEMPTION OF CAPTIVES.
CHAPTER XLIV. THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS FOR THE REDEMPTION OF CAPTIVES.
When viewing the religious institutions produced by the Church during the thirteenth century, we did not pause to consider one among them, which, to the merit of participating in the glory of the others, adds a peculiar character of beauty and sublimity, and which is inexpressibly worthy of our attention: I speak of that institution, the object of which was to redeem captives from the hands of the Infidels. If I make use of this general designation, it is because I do not intend to enter into a
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CHAPTER XLV. THE UNIVERSAL PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION IMPEDED BY PROTESTANTISM.
CHAPTER XLV. THE UNIVERSAL PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION IMPEDED BY PROTESTANTISM.
In the rapid sketch which I have just given, my intention has not been to write the history of the religious orders; this did not form part of my design. I am satisfied with having offered a series of remarks which, by showing the importance of these institutions, were calculated to vindicate Catholicity from the accusations made against her on account of the protection which she has at all times afforded them. How could a comparison be made between Catholicity and Protestantism in their relatio
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CHAPTER XLVI. THE JESUITS.
CHAPTER XLVI. THE JESUITS.
As I am treating of religious institutions, I must not pass over in silence that celebrated order, which, from the first years of its existence, assumed the stature of a colossus, and employed all a giant's strength; that order which perished without having felt decay; which did not follow the common course of others, either in its foundation, in its development, or even in its fall; that order of which it is truly and correctly said, that it had neither infancy nor old age. It is clear that I s
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CHAPTER XLVII. THE FUTURE OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS.—THEIR PRESENT NECESSITY.
CHAPTER XLVII. THE FUTURE OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS.—THEIR PRESENT NECESSITY.
When, after having fixed our eyes on the vast and interesting picture which religious communities present to us, after having called to mind their origin, their varied forms, their vicissitudes of poverty and riches, of depression and prosperity, of coldness and of fervor, of relaxation and strict reform, we see them still subsist and arise anew on all sides, in spite of the efforts of their enemies, we naturally ask what will be their future? their past is full of glory; what influence have the
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CHAPTER XLVIII. RELIGION AND LIBERTY.
CHAPTER XLVIII. RELIGION AND LIBERTY.
In the thirteenth chapter of this work we said, "The heart is filled with generous indignation when we hear the religion of Jesus Christ reproached with a tendency towards oppression. It is true, that if we confound the spirit of real liberty with that of demagogues, we shall not find it in Catholicity. But if we abstain from a monstrous abuse of the name, if we give to the word liberty its reasonable, just, useful, and pleasant meaning, then the Catholic religion may fearlessly claim the gratit
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CHAPTER XLIX. THE ORIGIN OF SOCIETY, ACCORDING TO CATHOLIC DIVINES.
CHAPTER XLIX. THE ORIGIN OF SOCIETY, ACCORDING TO CATHOLIC DIVINES.
There is nothing more instructive or more interesting, than the study of public law in those writers who, pretending not to pass for statesmen, and entertaining no views of ambition, express themselves without flattery and without bitterness; and explain these matters with as much calmness and tranquillity as they would theories of rare application and limited extent. At the present time it is almost impossible to open a book without immediately perceiving to which of the two contending parties
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CHAPTER L. ON THE RIGHT DIVINE, ACCORDING TO THE CATHOLIC DOCTORS.
CHAPTER L. ON THE RIGHT DIVINE, ACCORDING TO THE CATHOLIC DOCTORS.
The doctrine of the right divine, considered in its relation to society, presents to our notice two particular points which this doctrine contains: 1. The origin of civil power; 2. The mode in which God communicates this power. The former point is a question of doctrine. No Catholic can entertain any doubt upon it. The second is open to discussion; and various opinions may be formed upon it, without interfering with faith. With regard to the right divine, considered in itself, true philosophy ag
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CHAPTER LI. TRANSMISSION OF POWER, ACCORDING TO THE CATHOLIC DOCTORS.
CHAPTER LI. TRANSMISSION OF POWER, ACCORDING TO THE CATHOLIC DOCTORS.
The difference of opinion concerning the mode in which God communicates civil power, however grave in theory, does not appear to be of great importance in practice. We have already observed, that, among those who assert that this power comes from God, some maintain that it proceeds from Him directly , others indirectly . In the opinion of the former, when once the nomination of the persons appointed to exercise authority is made, society not only lays down the necessary conditions for the commun
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CHAPTER LII. FREEDOM OF SPEECH UNDER THE SPANISH MONARCHY.
CHAPTER LII. FREEDOM OF SPEECH UNDER THE SPANISH MONARCHY.
Extreme doctrines neither insure the liberty of the people, nor the force and stability of governments; both require truth and justice, the only foundations upon which we can build with any hope of the durability of the edifice. In general, maxims favorable to liberty are never carried to a higher pitch than on the eve of the establishment of despotism; and it is to be feared that the overthrow and ruin of governments are very near when undue adulations are lavished upon their power. When was th
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CHAPTER LIII. ON THE FACULTIES OF THE CIVIL POWER.
CHAPTER LIII. ON THE FACULTIES OF THE CIVIL POWER.
Having shown that the Catholic doctrine upon the origin of the civil power does not include any thing but what is perfectly reasonable and reconcilable with the true interests of the people, let us discuss the second of the proposed questions. Let us inquire into the nature of the faculties of this power, and see whether under this aspect the Church teaches any thing favorable to despotism—to that oppression of which she is so calumniously accused of being a supporter. We invite our opponents to
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CHAPTER LIV. ON RESISTANCE TO THE CIVIL POWER.
CHAPTER LIV. ON RESISTANCE TO THE CIVIL POWER.
The doctrines of Catholicity, therefore, in reference both to the origin and the exercise of civil power, are unobjectionable. Let us now proceed to another point—one of greater delicacy and difficulty, if not of more importance. To state the question frankly, without any subterfuge or evasion: " Is it allowable in any case to resist the civil power? " It is impossible to speak more distinctly, or to employ more precise and simple terms in stating this question, which is the most important, the
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CHAPTER LV. ON RESISTANCE TO DE FACTO GOVERNMENTS.
CHAPTER LV. ON RESISTANCE TO DE FACTO GOVERNMENTS.
The questions hitherto discussed relating to the obedience due to power are very grave; but those of resistance to it are still more important. Is it allowable, under any circumstances, in any supposition, to resist the civil power by physical force ? Does there nowhere exist a deposing power? How far do Catholic doctrines extend on this subject? Such are the extreme points we purpose to discuss. According to one system, obedience is due to a government from the very fact of its existence, even
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CHAPTER LVI. HOW THE CIVIL POWER MAY BE LAWFULLY RESISTED.
CHAPTER LVI. HOW THE CIVIL POWER MAY BE LAWFULLY RESISTED.
From what has been said in the foregoing chapters it follows, that it is allowable to resist illegitimate power by force. The Catholic religion does not enjoin obedience to governments existing merely de facto ; for morality does not admit a mere fact, unsupported by right and justice. However, when power is in itself lawful, but in its exercise tyrannical, does our religion prohibit, in every instance, resistance by physical force; so that not to resist at all, forms a part of her dogmas? Is in
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CHAPTER LVII. POLITICAL SOCIETY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
CHAPTER LVII. POLITICAL SOCIETY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
We have already seen what has been the conduct of the Christian religion with respect to society; that is to say, that not caring whether such or such political forms were established in a country, she has ever addressed herself to man, seeking to enlighten his understanding and to purify his heart, fully confident that when these objects were attained, society would naturally pursue a safe course. This is sufficient to obliterate the reproach imputed to her of being an enemy to the liberty of t
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CHAPTER LVIII. MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
CHAPTER LVIII. MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
The idea of monarchy has ever existed in the bosom of European society, even at the time when the least use was made of it; and it is worthy of remark, that at the time when its energy was taken away, and it was destroyed in practice, it still retained its force in theory. We cannot say that our ancestors had any very fixed notions upon the nature of the object represented by this idea; nor can we wonder at it, since the continual variations and modifications which they witnessed must have preve
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CHAPTER LIX. THE ARISTOCRACY OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
CHAPTER LIX. THE ARISTOCRACY OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
The aristocracy, as including the privileged portion of society, comprehended two classes very distinct in their origin and nature, the nobility and the clergy. Both abounded in power and riches; both were placed far above the people, and were important wheels in the political machine. There was, however, this remarkable difference between them, that the principal basis of the power and grandeur of the Clergy was religious ideas—ideas which circulated throughout society, which animated it, gave
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CHAPTER LX. ON DEMOCRACY.
CHAPTER LX. ON DEMOCRACY.
Such was the situation of Europe during the centuries preceding the sixteenth, that it appears difficult to find for democracy a well-defined place in political theories. Stifled by the established powers, deprived as yet of the resources which, in time, gave it the ascendency, it was natural it should be almost unobserved by politicians. It was in reality very feeble; and it was not, therefore, surprising that, owing to the influence of reality over ideas, theorists should regard the people mer
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CHAPTER LXI. ON THE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT POLITICAL FORMS—CHARACTER OF MONARCHY IN EUROPE.
CHAPTER LXI. ON THE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT POLITICAL FORMS—CHARACTER OF MONARCHY IN EUROPE.
The enthusiasm enkindled in Europe in latter times, has cooled down by degrees; experience has shown that a political organization not in accordance with the social organization is of no advantage to a nation, but rather overwhelms it with evil. Men also understand, and not without difficulty, simple as the matter is, that political systems should be regarded solely as a means of ameliorating the condition of the people, and that political liberty, to be at all rational, must be made a medium fo
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CHAPTER LXII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MONARCHY IN EUROPE.
CHAPTER LXII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MONARCHY IN EUROPE.
A single glance at the state of Europe in the fifteenth century enables us to discover that such a state of things could not long exist, and that of the three elements claiming preference, the monarchical must necessarily prevail. And it could not be otherwise; for we have always seen that societies, after a long period of trouble and agitation, place themselves at last under the protection of that power which offers them the greatest security and well-being. Beholding, on the one hand, those gr
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CHAPTER LXIII. TWO KINDS OF DEMOCRACY.
CHAPTER LXIII. TWO KINDS OF DEMOCRACY.
There is in the history of Europe one leading fact contained in all its pages, and still visible in our days, viz. the parallel march of two democracies, which, although sometimes apparently alike, are, in reality, very different in their nature, origin, and aim. The one is based upon the knowledge and dignity of man, and on the right which he possesses of enjoying a certain amount of liberty conformable to reason and justice. With ideas more or less clear, more or less uniform, upon the real or
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CHAPTER LXIV. STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE THREE SOCIAL ELEMENTS.
CHAPTER LXIV. STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE THREE SOCIAL ELEMENTS.
When once these three elements of government, monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, began each to contend for the ascendency, the most certain means of securing the victory to monarchy, to the exclusion of the other two elements, was to drive one of these latter into acts of turbulence and outrage; for it thus became absolutely necessary to establish one sole, powerful, unfettered centre of action, that would be able to awe the turbulent and to insure public order. Now, just at this time, the po
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CHAPTER LXV. POLITICAL DOCTRINES BEFORE THE APPEARANCE OF PROTESTANTISM.
CHAPTER LXV. POLITICAL DOCTRINES BEFORE THE APPEARANCE OF PROTESTANTISM.
In matters appertaining to representative government, modern political science boasts of its great progress: we hear it continually asserting that the school in which the deputies of the Constituent Assembly imbibed their lessons was totally ignorant of political constitutions. Now when we compare the doctrines of the predominating school of the present day with those of the preceding school, what difference do we discover between them? On what points do they differ? Where is this boasted progre
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CHAPTER LXVI. POLITICAL DOCTRINES IN SPAIN.
CHAPTER LXVI. POLITICAL DOCTRINES IN SPAIN.
My explanation of this matter would be incomplete, were I to leave the following difficulty unresolved: "In Spain, Catholicity has prevailed exclusively, and under it an absolute monarchy was established, a sufficient indication that Catholic doctrines are inimical to political liberty." The great majority of men never look deeply into the real nature of things, nor pay due attention to the true meaning of words. Present them with something in strong relief that will make a vivid impression on t
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CHAPTER LXVII. POLITICAL LIBERTY AND RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE.
CHAPTER LXVII. POLITICAL LIBERTY AND RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE.
In the sketch I have here drawn, the rigorous accuracy of which no one can question, we have not discovered any thing like oppression in Catholicity, nor any alliance between the clergy and the throne for the destruction of liberty: what we have discovered is merely the regular and natural order of things,—a successive development of events contained in each other, as the plant is contained in the germ. As for the Inquisition, I think I have said enough respecting it in the chapters that treat o
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CHAPTER LXVIII. UNITY IN FAITH NOT ADVERSE TO POLITICAL LIBERTY.
CHAPTER LXVIII. UNITY IN FAITH NOT ADVERSE TO POLITICAL LIBERTY.
The supposed incompatibility of unity in faith with political liberty is an invention of the irreligious philosophy of the last century. Whatever political opinions be adopted, it is of extreme importance that we be on our guard against such a doctrine. We must not forget that the Catholic religion occupies a sphere far above all forms of government—she does not reject from her bosom either the citizen of the United States, or the inhabitant of Russia, but embraces all men with equal tenderness,
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CHAPTER LXIX. OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICITY.
CHAPTER LXIX. OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICITY.
It has been abundantly proved in the course of this work, that the pseudo-Reformation has not in any way contributed to the perfection either of individuals or of society; from which we may naturally infer that the case is the same as regards the development of the intellect. I am unwilling, however, to let this truth stand merely as a corollary, and I believe it to be susceptible of a special elucidation. We may freely examine what advantage Protestantism has conferred upon the various branches
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CHAPTER LXX. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT.
CHAPTER LXX. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT.
From the rapid view we have taken of the several branches of learning in their relations to the authority of the Church, it is clear to a demonstration, that the alleged enslavement of the intellect amongst Catholics is nothing but a mere bugbear: in no respect does our faith either arrest or retard the progress of learning. Since, however, it not unfrequently happens that, in arguments apparently the most solid, a flaw is discovered when they are brought to the test of facts, it will be well to
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CHAPTER LXXI. RELIGION AND THE HUMAN MIND IN EUROPE.
CHAPTER LXXI. RELIGION AND THE HUMAN MIND IN EUROPE.
As we are to examine what was, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the conduct of the Church in reference to innovators, we will avail ourselves of the excellent opportunity afforded by this epoch for noticing the progress of the human mind. It has been said that in Europe intellectual development was exclusively theological. This is true, and necessarily so; all the faculties of man receive their development according to the circumstances that surround him; and as his health, his temperament
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CHAPTER LXXII. ON THE PROGRESS OF THE HUMAN MIND FROM THE ELEVENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT TIME.
CHAPTER LXXII. ON THE PROGRESS OF THE HUMAN MIND FROM THE ELEVENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT TIME.
I think I have satisfactorily vindicated the Catholic Church from the reproaches cast upon her by her enemies, for her conduct during the eleventh and twelfth centuries in reference to the development of the human mind. Let us now take a rapid survey of the march of intellect up to our own times, and see what titles Protestantism can produce to the gratitude of the friends of progress in human knowledge. If I mistake not, the following are the phases through which the human mind has passed, sinc
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CHAPTER LXXIII. SUMMARY.—DECLARATION OF THE AUTHOR.
CHAPTER LXXIII. SUMMARY.—DECLARATION OF THE AUTHOR.
Having reached the end of my difficult enterprise, let me be allowed to take a retrospective view of the vast space over which I have but just passed, like the traveller who rests after his labor. The fear of seeing religious schism introduced into my country; the sight of the efforts which were made to inculcate Protestant errors amongst us; the perusal of certain writings, wherein it was stated that the pretended Reformation had been favorable to the progress of nations,—such were the motives
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NOTES.
NOTES.
Note 1, p. 26. The History of the Variations is one of those works which exhaust their subject, and which do not admit of reply or addition. If this immortal chef-d'œuvre be read with attention, the cause of Protestantism, with respect to faith, is forever decided: there is no middle way left between Catholicity and infidelity. Gibbon read it in his youth, and he became a Catholic, abandoning the Protestant religion in which he had been brought up. When, at a later period, he left the Catholic C
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APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
Note (a), p. 289. Quod necesse est homines simul viventes ab aliquo diligenter regi. Et siquidem homini conveniret singulariter vivere, sicut multis animalium, nullo alio dirigente indigeret ad finem, sed ipse sibi unusquisque esset rex sub Deo summo rege, in quantum per lumen rationis divinitus datum sibi, in suis actibus seipsum dirigeret. Naturale autem est homini ut sit animal sociale, et politicum, in multitudine vivens, magis etiam quam omnia alia animalia; quod quidem naturalis necessitas
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