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Archæology And The Bible

George A. (George Aaron) Barton

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ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE

ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE

A Hillside Street in Roman Jerusalem along which Jesus and the Disciples may well have walked ( after Germer-Durand ).— Frontispiece. Green Fund Book, No. 17 ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE BY GEORGE A. BARTON , Ph. D. , LL. D. PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE AND SEMITIC LANGUAGES IN BRYN MAWR COLLEGE; SOMETIME DIRECTOR OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH IN JERUSALEM PART I THE BIBLE LANDS, THEIR EXPLORATION, AND THE RESULTANT LIGHT ON THE BIBLE AND HISTORY PART II TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT

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PREFACE

PREFACE

For a hundred years or more the explorer and the excavator have been busy in many parts of the world. They have brought to light monuments and texts that have in many cases revolutionized our conceptions of history and have in other cases thrown much new light on what was previously known. In no part of the world have these labors been more fruitful than in the lands of the Bible. In Egypt and Babylonia vistas of history have been opened to view that were undreamed of before exploration began. T

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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

It is gratifying to know that this book has been found useful by so many students of the Bible and that a second edition is necessary. Minor errors, especially typographical, have been corrected throughout the volume. The chief feature of this edition is the addition of an Appendix, in which will be found some material that has come to light in the last year, and one or two items that were overlooked when the first edition was written. George A. Barton. Bryn Mawr, Pa. June, 1917. ...

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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

One who would write on archæology and the Bible must at the outset define the scope of his undertaking, for the word archæology conveys different meanings to different people. Judgments also differ as to how things ancient can best serve the interests of the Biblical student. To many the word archæology calls up visions of ancient pottery, jewelry, swords, utensils, etc., which are valued as objects of curiosity simply because they are old. Others, when they think of archæology, call to mind exc

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CHAPTER I

CHAPTER I

EGYPT The Land. The Preservation of Antiquities. Egyptian Discoveries. Decipherment. Chronology. Outline of the History : The pre-dynastic period. The archaic period. The old kingdom. The first period of disintegration. The middle kingdom. Second period of disintegration. The empire period. The period of foreign dynasties. The lower empire. The Persian period. The Ptolemaic period. The Roman period. Egyptian Discoveries Which Bear on the Bible : Texts bearing on the story of Joseph. The Invasion

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CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II

BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA The Land. The Preservation of Antiquities. The Discovery of Antiquities : By Benjamin of Tudela. By Rich. By Botta and Place. By Layard. By Loftus and Rawlinson. By Oppert and Rassam. By George Smith. By Sarzec. By Peters, Ward, and Haynes. By Koldeway. By Andrae. By de Morgan. By Harper and Banks. By Genouillac. The Decipherment of the Inscriptions : By Niebuhr. By Grotefend, De Sacy, and Rawlinson. Babylonian column. Babylonian-Semitic. Chronology. Outline of the History

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CHAPTER III

CHAPTER III

THE HITTITES A Forgotten Empire. Hittite Monuments : Sendjirli. Boghaz Koi. Other recent excavations. Hittite Decipherment : Sayce’s early work. Peiser. Jensen. Conder. Sayce’s later work. Thompson. Delitzsch. Hittite History : First appearance. Hyksos possibly Hittites. The Mitanni. Kingdom of “Hittite City.” Carchemish. Samal and Yadi. Hamath. 1. A Forgotten Empire. —Among the peoples who are said to have been in Palestine in the Patriarchal age are the Hittites (Gen. 23:10; 26:34, etc.). They

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CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER IV

PALESTINE AND ITS EXPLORATION The Land : Rainfall. Early Exploration : Place names. Early American Explorations : Robinson and Smith. Lynch. American exploration societies. Palestine Exploration Fund : Warren’s excavations at Jerusalem. The survey of Palestine. Exploration of Lachish. Bliss’s excavation at Jerusalem. Excavation at Azekah. At Tell es-Safi (Gath?). Tell el-Judeideh. At Marash (Moresheth-Gath). Gezer. Beth-shemesh. Exploring the Wilderness of Zin. The German Palestine Society : Gut

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CHAPTER V

CHAPTER V

OUTLINE OF PALESTINE’S ARCHÆOLOGICAL HISTORY The Early Stone Age. The Late Stone Age. The Amorites. The Canaanites. Egyptian Domination : Thothmes III. Palestine in the El-Amarna Letters. Seti I. Ramses II. Merneptah. Ramses III. The Philistines. The Hebrews. Philistine Civilization. The Hebrew Kingdoms. The Exile and After : The Samaritans. Alexander the Great and his successors. The Maccabees. The Asmonæans. The Coming of Rome : The Herods. The destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A. D. Later Histor

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CHAPTER VI

CHAPTER VI

THE CITIES OF PALESTINE Their Sites. The Walls. The Stone Work. Houses. Palaces : At Taanach. At Samaria. At Jericho. At Megiddo. Foundation Sacrifices. City Gates. Water Supply : Springs. Underground tunnels. Reservoirs. 1. Their Sites. —The cities of Palestine were usually built on hills. These elevations, surmounted as they were by walls, created a natural means of defence from attack; (see Fig. 33 ). Even more important than an elevated situation was a water supply, hence all Palestinian c

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CHAPTER VII

CHAPTER VII

ROADS AND AGRICULTURE Roads : Early paths. Roman roads. Agriculture : Granaries. Hoes and plows. Sickles. Threshing. Winnowing. Grinding. Mortars. Fruits. Vineyards and wine-vats. Olive-presses. The agricultural calendar. Domestic animals. Bees. Birds. Hens. 1. Roads. —From the time cities were established in Palestine there was more or less communication between them. Probably in a small way commerce was carried on among some of them, but no effort was made to construct roads, in the modern sen

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CHAPTER VIII

CHAPTER VIII

POTTERY Importance of Pottery. Pre-Semitic Pottery. First Semitic Pottery to 1800 b. c. Pottery of Second Semitic Period. Third Semitic Period. Israelitish or Fourth Semitic Period. Hellenistic Period. 1. Importance of Pottery. —In all parts of the world the making of clay jars and receptacles is one of the earliest arts to be discovered, and Palestine was no exception to the rule. In Palestine such jars were particularly useful, as the water for each family had to be carried from the nearest sp

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CHAPTER IX

CHAPTER IX

UTENSILS AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS Utensils : Ovens. Baking-trays. Bowls, etc. Feeding-bottles. Glassware. Spoons. Forks or Flesh-hooks. Needles. Spinning “Whorls.” Lamp-stands. Keys. Knives. Saws. Chisels. Awls. Axes. Adzes. Whetstones. Files. Hammers. Nails. Baskets. Arrows. Spears. Swords. Fish-hooks. Styli. Seals. The “Pipe.” Harps. The Dulcimer. Lyres. Children’s toys. Personal Ornaments : Combs. Perfume-boxes. Spatulæ for eye-paint, etc. Fibulæ. Beads. Necklaces. Bracelets. Anklets. Rings. 1.

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CHAPTER X

CHAPTER X

MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY Measures. Weights. Inscribed Weights. Money : Who invented coinage? Darics. Maccabæan coins. Asmonæan coins. Herodian coins. Roman coins. The Widow’s Mite. The Piece of Silver. Coinage of the Revolt of 66-70 A. D. 1. Measures. —The Hebrew units of dry measure were: 1. The Homer (or Cor), which contained 10 Ephahs (Ezek. 45:11, 14). 2. The Ephah, which contained 3 Seahs (Isa. 40:12) or 10 Omers (Exod. 16:36) or 18 Cabs (2 Kings 6:25, and Josephus, Antiquities , IX,

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CHAPTER XI

CHAPTER XI

HIGH PLACES AND TEMPLES [195] A Sanctuary of the Pre-Semitic Cave-dwellers. A Rock-altar at Megiddo. A Rock-altar at Jerusalem. High Place at Tell Es-Safi. High Place at Gezer : Choice of site. Child-sacrifice. Corrupt worship. At Taanach : Pillars. An altar of incense. High Places at Petra. A Supposed Philistine Temple. At Megiddo : A Hebrew temple. A palace chapel. Another chapel. The Temple to Augustus at Samaria. 1. A Sanctuary of the Pre-Semitic Cave-dwellers. —The oldest sanctuary which

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CHAPTER XII

CHAPTER XII

THE TOMBS OF PALESTINE Burning the Dead. Cave Burials. Cistern Burial. Burial under Menhirs. Earth-graves. Rock-hewn Shaft Tombs. Doorway Tombs. Tombs with a Rolling-stone. 1. Burning the Dead. —As noted in a previous chapter, [215] the cave-dwellers of Gezer burned their dead. The Semitic inhabitants of Palestine did not follow this custom, but buried theirs. At Gezer the caves that had formed the dwellings of the first inhabitants were put by the Semites to various uses. Sometimes they, too, l

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CHAPTER XIII

CHAPTER XIII

JERUSALEM [229] Situation. Gihon. Cave-dwellers. The El-Amarna Period. Jebusite Jerusalem. The City of David : Millo. David’s reign. Solomon’s Jerusalem : Site of Solomon’s buildings. Solomon’s temple. Solomon’s palace. From Solomon to Hezekiah. Hezekiah. From Hezekiah to the Exile. The Destruction of 586 b. c. The Second Temple. Nehemiah and the Walls. Late Persian and Early Greek Periods. In the Time of the Maccabees. Asmonæan Jerusalem. Herod the Great : Herod’s palace. Herod’s theater. Herod

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CHAPTER XIV

CHAPTER XIV

THE DECAPOLIS Origin. Damascus. Scythopolis. Cities East of the Sea of Galilee. Gadara. Pella and Dion. Gerasa. Philadelphia. Jesus in the Decapolis. 1. Origin. —Three times in the Gospels the Decapolis is mentioned: Matt. 4:25; Mark 5:20 and 7:31. Decapolis is a Greek name and means “the ten city” (region). The ancient writers who mention it agree that it originally consisted of ten cities in which Greek population was dominant and which were federated together. Pliny [297] gives the ten cities

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CHAPTER XV

CHAPTER XV

ATHENS, CORINTH, AND THE CHURCHES OF ASIA Athens. Corinth. The Churches of Asia : Ephesus. Pergamum. Thyatira. Sardis. Philadelphia. Smyrna. Laodicea. The greater part of Biblical history was enacted in Palestine and the great valleys of Mesopotamia and the Nile. The Apostle Paul, however, broke the Jewish bonds of primitive Christianity and carried the Gospel to the coasts of the Ægean Sea. In cities of this region he spent years of his active missionary life; to churches of this region most of

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PART II

PART II

TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT DOCUMENTS WHICH CONFIRM OR ILLUMINATE THE BIBLE FOREWORD As noted in the Preface, the inferences drawn by different scholars, when they compare the Bible with the records brought to light by exploration, diverge according as their critical and theological views differ. In the comments made throughout Part II, as in Part I, the writer has endeavored to maintain a neutral attitude and impartially to report in each case the principal inferences drawn by the most important gr

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CHAPTER I

CHAPTER I

AN EPIC OF THE CREATION WHICH CIRCULATED IN BABYLON AND ASSYRIA IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY BEFORE CHRIST [357] Text of the Epic. Comparison of the Epic with the First Chapter of Genesis. The Epic and Other Parts of the Bible. I. Text of the Epic. Tablet I 1. Time was when above heaven was not named 2. Below to the earth no name was given. 3. Then the primeval Abyss their begetter, 4. The roaring Sea who bore them,— 5. Their waters together were mingled; 6. No field had been formed, no mars

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CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II

ANOTHER ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION FOUND AT BABYLON. [364] Text of the Account. Comparison of it with Genesis 2. 1. Text of the Account. 1. A holy house, a house of the gods, in a holy place had not been made; 2. No reed had sprung up, no tree had been created. 3. No brick had been made, no foundation had been built, 4. No house had been constructed, no city had been built; 5. No city had been built, thrones had not been established; 6. Nippur had not been constructed, Ekur had not been built; 7. E

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CHAPTER III

CHAPTER III

THE BABYLONIAN SABBATH Feast of Marduk and Zarpanit. A Day Called Shabatum. A Day in Some Tablets at Yale. 1. Feast of Marduk and Zarpanit. The seventh day is the feast of Marduk and Zarpanit. It is an evil day. The shepherd of the great people shall not eat flesh cooked on the coals which is smoked. The garment of his body he shall not change; a clean one he shall not put on. A sacrifice he shall not offer. The king in a chariot shall not ride. In triumph he shall not speak. In the secret place

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CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER IV

THE LEGEND OF ADAPA AND THE FALL OF MAN Comparison with Genesis 3. The Adapa Myth. Four fragments of the Adapa myth have been found. They really present but three parts of the story, as two of them cover the same ground. These three parts of the story are translated in this chapter. It will be noted that the fragments do not present the entire story. Between fragments I and II, as well as between fragments II and III, some lines have fallen out, and the last fragment is broken away before the en

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CHAPTER V

CHAPTER V

THE PATRIARCHS BEFORE THE FLOOD Babylonian Long-lived Kings. Comparison with Genesis 5. Comparison with Genesis 4. Comparison with the List of Berossos. A Biblical narrative that challenges attention is that in Genesis 5, which contains the list of long-lived patriarchs who flourished before the flood. This narrative finds a striking parallel in the following tablet which tells of long-lived kings who are said to have ruled in ancient Babylonia. The beginnings of all the columns of the tablet ar

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CHAPTER VI

CHAPTER VI

A BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NINEVEH IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY B. C. [396] Translation of the Text. Comparison with Genesis 6-9. Another Babylonian Version. 1. Translation of the Text. 1. Gilgamesh said to him, to Utnapishtim, the far-away: 2. “I look upon thee, O Utnapishtim, 3. Thy appearance is unchanged; thou are like me; 4. Thou art not at all different, thou art like me. 5. Thy courage is unbroken, to make combat, 6. On thy side thou liest down—on thy back. 7. [

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CHAPTER VII

CHAPTER VII

AN ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION AND FLOOD, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NIPPUR BEFORE 2000 B. C. Translation. Comparison with the Other Version. 1. Translation. This tablet was published by Dr. Arno Poebel, of Breslau. It was apparently written in the time of the dynasty of Nisin, but at any rate not later than the period of the first dynasty of Babylon. Only a part of the tablet has been found, so that the narrative is incomplete both at the beginning and at the end. Possibly the remaining portion may s

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CHAPTER VIII

CHAPTER VIII

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN OF A CITY AND THE BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURE, FROM A TABLET WRITTEN AT NIPPUR BEFORE 2000 B. C. Translation. Comparison with Biblical Material. This tablet begins with a description of a place the name of which is not identified; it is, accordingly, indicated in the translation by X. Possibly it was Eridu; possibly Dilmun. 1. Translation. Column I [407] 1. They that are lofty, they that are lofty are ye, 2. O X, pure; 3. They that are holy, they that are lofty are ye. 4. O

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CHAPTER IX

CHAPTER IX

ABRAHAM AND ARCHÆOLOGY Abraham Hired an Ox. Abraham Leased a Farm. Abraham Paid His Rent. Who Was This Abraham? Travel between Babylonia and Palestine. Hammurapi, King of the Westland. Kudur-Mabug. Kings Supposed by Some to be those of Genesis 14. Archæological investigation has brought to light a number of texts believed by scholars to illumine the Biblical accounts of Abraham. It is the purpose of this chapter to translate and discuss these. The documents which naturally attract us first are s

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CHAPTER X

CHAPTER X

JACOB AND JOSEPH Appearances of these Names in Babylonian and Egyptian Records. “The Tale of the Two Brothers”; Its Bearing on the Story of Joseph in Genesis. Letters to a Ruler Like Joseph. The Seven Years of Famine. Inscription Showing Preparation for Famine. 1. Jacob. Three different men in Babylonia at the time of the Hammurapi dynasty bore the name Jacob-el. Thus, in the reign of Apil-Sin, the fourth king of the dynasty (2161 to 2144 B. C. ), two witnesses, Shubna-ilu and Yadakh-ilu gave th

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CHAPTER XI

CHAPTER XI

PALESTINE IN THE PATRIARCHAL AGE The Tale of Sinuhe. Communication between Egypt and Palestine. 1. The Tale of Sinuhe. In the year 1970 B. C. , when Amenemhet I died and was succeeded by Sesostris I, an Egyptian of high rank, named Sinuhe, for some reason now unknown to us, fled from Egypt to Asia. The details of his escape from Egypt are not of interest to the Biblical student, but his description of the hardships encountered in the desert and of his experiences in eastern Palestine are of grea

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CHAPTER XII

CHAPTER XII

MOSES AND THE EXODUS The Legend of Sargon of Agade; Its Resemblance to the Story of Moses. The Pillar of Merneptah; The Only Appearance of the Name “Israel” Outside of the Bible. 1. The Legend of Sargon of Agade. The following legend [449] contains a story of the exposure of an infant on a river, strikingly like that told of Moses. 1. Sargon, the mighty king, king of Agade am I, 2. My mother was lowly; my father I did not know; [450] 3. The brother of my father dwelt in the mountain. 4. My city

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CHAPTER XIII

CHAPTER XIII

THE CODE OF HAMMURAPI AND THE PENTATEUCH The Text of the Code; Resemblance to and Contrast with the Mosaic Code. The Mosaic Code Not Borrowed from the Babylonian; Different Underlying Conceptions. 1. The Text of the Code; Comparison with the Mosaic Code. The following code of laws was inscribed by order of Hammurapi, of the first dynasty of Babylon (2104-2061 B. C. ), on a block of black diorite nearly eight feet in height and set up in Esagila, the temple of Marduk, in Babylon, so that the peop

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CHAPTER XIV

CHAPTER XIV

AN ALLEGED PARALLEL TO LEVITICUS—A CARTHAGINIAN LAW CONCERNING SACRIFICES [469] The Text of the Carthaginian Law. Comparison with the Levitical Law. 1. The Text of the Carthaginian Law. Temple of Baal[zephon], Tar[iff of d]ues, which [the superintendents of d]ues fixed in the time [of our rulers, Khalas]baal, the judge, son of Bodtanith, son of Bod[eshmun, and of Khalasbaal], the judge, son of Bodeshmun, son of Khalasbaal, and their colleagues. For an ox as a whole burnt-offering [470] or a pray

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CHAPTER XV

CHAPTER XV

SOME LETTERS FROM PALESTINE Letters of Rib-Adda of Gebal. Of Ebed-Hepa of Jerusalem. Their Light on Conditions in the Period of the Egyptian Domination of Palestine. Many of the El-Amarna [475] Letters were written from Palestine and Phœnicia. Some scholars think these letters come from the Patriarchal period; others hold that they are contemporary with the Hebrew conquest, and give us additional information concerning it. Some of those who hold this last view believe that the conquest of Palest

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CHAPTER XVI

CHAPTER XVI

DOCUMENTS FROM THE TIME OF ISRAEL’S JUDGES Report of Wenamon. Its Illustration of Certain Points of Biblical History about the Time of Deborah or Gideon. Reference to the Philistines. The following vivid story of adventure dates from about 1100 B. C. and throws a vivid light on the condition of the coast-lands of Palestine and Phœnicia about the middle of the period of the Judges. 1. Report of Wenamon. [491] Year five, third month of the third season (eleventh month), day 16, day of departure of

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CHAPTER XVII

CHAPTER XVII

ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE BOOKS OF KINGS Gudea and Cedar-wood for his Palace. The Eponym Canon. The Seal of Shema. Shishak’s List of Conquered Asiatic Cities. Ashurnasirpal’s Description of his Expedition to Mediterranean Lands. Shalmaneser III’s Claims Regarding Tribute from the Kings of Israel. The Moabite Stone. Adadnirari IV’s Mention of the “Land of Omri.” Inscription Describing Tiglathpileser IV’s Campaign. Sargon’s Conquests. Sennacherib’s Western Campaigns. The Siloam Inscription. Esarh

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CHAPTER XVIII

CHAPTER XVIII

THE END OF THE BABYLONIAN EXILE Inscriptions of Nabuna’id; Their Bearing on Biblical Statements Regarding Belshazzar. Account of the Capture of Babylon Bearing on the Book of Daniel. Inscription of Cyrus Bearing on the Capture of Babylon. Cyrus’ Permission for the Return to Jerusalem. 1. Inscriptions of Nabuna’id. Several inscriptions of this king, who ruled 555-538 B. C. , are known, but only a brief extract of one of them is given here, as the major part of the material has no bearing on the B

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CHAPTER XIX

CHAPTER XIX

A JEWISH COLONY IN EGYPT DURING THE TIME OF NEHEMIAH Papyri Witness to the Existence of a Colony at Elephantine. Translation of a Petition Relating to Their Temple. Reply of Persian Governor. Historical Bearings of these Documents. A Letter Relating to the Passover. A Letter Showing that the Jews were Unpopular at Elephantine. Numerous papyri found since 1895 at Elephantine, an island at the First Cataract of the Nile, reveal the existence of a Jewish community there. The documents are dated fro

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CHAPTER XX

CHAPTER XX

A BABYLONIAN JOB Translation of a Poem Relating to the Afflictions of a Good Man. Comparison with the Book of Job. A Fragment of Another Similar Poem. 1. Babylonian Poem Relating to Affliction. The following Babylonian poem treats of a mysterious affliction which overtook a righteous man of Babylonia, and has been compared with the book of Job. [558] 1. I advanced in life, I attained to the allotted span; Wherever I turned there was evil, evil— Oppression is increased, uprightness I see not. I c

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CHAPTER XXI

CHAPTER XXI

PSALMS FROM BABYLONIA AND EGYPT Character of Their Psalms. Babylonian Prayers to the Goddess Ishtar. Comparison with the Psalter. A Babylonian Hymn to the Moon-God. A Babylonian Hymn to Bel. An Egyptian Hymn to the Sun-God. Is the Hymn Monotheistic? An Egyptian Hymn in Praise of Aton. Comparison with the Psalter. Both from Babylonia and from Egypt a large number of hymns and prayers have been recovered. Some of these are beautiful on account of their form of expression, the poetical nature of th

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CHAPTER XXII

CHAPTER XXII

PARALLELS TO PROVERBS AND ECCLESIASTES The Nature of the Book of Proverbs and the Parallels. Babylonian Proverbs from the Library of Ashurbanipal. Precepts from the Library of Ashurbanipal. Comparison with the Bible. Egyptian Precepts of Ptahhotep. Comparison with the Bible. Parallel to Ecclesiastes from the Gilgamesh Epic. Both Egypt and Babylon furnish parallels to the book of Proverbs. The Biblical book of Proverbs contains a long connected discourse of advice (Prov. 1-9) and various collecti

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CHAPTER XXIII

CHAPTER XXIII

EGYPTIAN PARALLELS TO THE SONG OF SONGS Nature of the Song of Songs. Translation of Some Egyptian Love-Poems. Comparison with Biblical Passages. For many centuries the Song of Songs has been interpreted allegorically, but even those who give it an allegorical meaning must admit that its sentiments are couched in the terms of earthly love. Love poems, which sometimes express sentiments that remind us of the Song of Songs, have been discovered on some Egyptian papyri and ostraca. The documents in

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CHAPTER XXIV

CHAPTER XXIV

ILLUSTRATIONS OF PASSAGES IN THE PROPHETS Uniqueness of the Prophetic Books. An Assyrian Prophetic Vision. Comparison with the Bible. The Egyptian Social Conscience. Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. Comparison with the Bible. An Ideal King; Extract from the Admonitions of Ipuwer. Comparison with Messianic Expectations. Sheol. Ishtar’s Descent to the Under-world. Comparison with Prophetic Passages. A Lamentation for Tammuz. There is no other body of literature which closely corresponds to the books

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CHAPTER XXV

CHAPTER XXV

REPUTED SAYINGS OF JESUS FOUND IN EGYPT Early Collections of the Words of Jesus. Translation of Sayings Found in 1897. Comments. Translation of a Leaf Found in 1904. Comments. Opinions as to these Sayings. The Gospel of Luke begins with the words: “Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up a narrative concerning those matters which have been fulfilled among us,”—words which imply that there were in the early Church many attempts at Gospel writing. Some of these attempts apparently took the

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CHAPTER XXVI

CHAPTER XXVI

ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ENROLMENT OF QUIRINIUS Translation of a Papyrus Showing that in the Second Century Enrolment was made Every Fourteen Years. Comments. Translation Referring to an Enrolment in the Reign of Nero. Fragment from the Reign of Tiberius. Enrolments Probably Inaugurated by Augustus. Document Showing that People Went to their Own Towns for Enrolment. Inscription Supposed to Refer to Quirinius. Inscription from Asia Minor Referring to Quirinius. Discussion. Conclusions. Archæolo

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CHAPTER XXVII

CHAPTER XXVII

ARCHÆOLOGICAL LIGHT ON THE ACTS AND EPISTLES The Politarchs of Thessalonica. An Altar to Unknown Gods. An Inscription from Delphi and the Date of Paul’s Contact with Gallio. Some Epistles from Egypt. Inscriptions Mentioning Aretas, King of Arabia. 1. The Politarchs of Thessalonica. In Acts 17:6 the rulers of Thessalonica are called in the Greek “politarchs.” It is a unique term, and its accuracy had been called in question by some scholars. Within the past hundred years no less than nineteen ins

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX

(Appearing first in Second Edition.) I Addition to Part I, Chapter III, §2, (3), p. 70 . The discoveries at Carchemish included Hittite inscriptions, one of which is said to be longer than any Hittite writing yet discovered. A number of stone deities were also found, one of which is a bearded god of the eighth century B. C. seated on a heavy base supported by two lions. Three large gateways were found. On the inside of the court of one of these were dadoes from five to six feet high, “with sculp

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PLATES

PLATES

Plate 1 Fig. 1. Syrian Traders in Egypt, from a Tomb at Beni Hasan. Fig. 2. Crown of Lower Egypt. Fig. 3. Crown of Upper Egypt. Fig. 4. Crown of United Egypt. Fig. 5. Sphinx and Pyramid of Khafre. Plate 2 Fig. 6. Pyramids of Khufu and Khafre. Fig. 7. Step Pyramid of Zoser. Plate 3 Fig. 8. Body from a Pre-dynastic Tomb. Fig. 9. Head of the Mummy of Ramses II. Plate 4 Fig. 10. A Store-Chamber at Pithom ( after Naville ). Fig. 11. Ancient and Modern Brick-Making

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