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PREFACE
PREFACE
This sketch of the History of Rome to 565 A. D. is primarily intended to meet the needs of introductory college courses in Roman History. However, it is hoped that it may also prove of service as a handbook for students of Roman life and literature in general. It is with the latter in mind that I have added the bibliographical note. Naturally, within the brief limits of such a text, it was impossible to defend the point of view adopted on disputed points or to take notice of divergent opinions.
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LIST OF MAPS
LIST OF MAPS
The student beginning the study of Roman History through the medium of the works of modern writers cannot fail to note wide differences in the treatment accorded by them to the early centuries of the life of the Roman State. These differences are mainly due to differences of opinion among moderns as to the credibility of the ancient accounts of this period. And so it will perhaps prove helpful to give a brief review of these sources, and to indicate the estimate of their value which is reflected
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INTRODUCTION The Sources for the Study of Early Roman History
INTRODUCTION The Sources for the Study of Early Roman History
The authorship of the earliest annals is not recorded. However, at the opening of the second century B. C. the Roman pontiffs had in their custody annals which purported to run back to the foundation of the city, including the regal period. We know also that as late as the time of the Gracchi it was customary for the Pontifex Maximus to record on a tablet for public inspection the chief events of each year. When this custom began is uncertain and it can only be proven for the time when the Roman
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CHAPTER I THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY
CHAPTER I THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY
The coast-line . In comparison with Greece, Italy presents a striking regularity of coast-line. Throughout its length of over 2000 miles it has remarkably few deep bays or good harbors, and these few are almost all on the southern and western shores. Thus the character of the Mediterranean coast of Italy, with its fertile lowlands, its rivers, its harbors, and its general southerly aspect, rendered it more inviting and accessible to approach from the sea than the eastern coast, and determined it
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CHAPTER II PREHISTORIC CIVILIZATION IN ITALY
CHAPTER II PREHISTORIC CIVILIZATION IN ITALY
The New Stone Age. With the Neolithic or New Stone Age there appears in Italy a civilization characterized by the use of instruments of polished stone. Axes, adzes, and chisels, of various shapes and sizes, as well as other utensils, were shaped by polishing and grinding from sandstone, limestone, jade, nephrite, diorite, and other stones. Along with these, however, articles of chipped flint and obsidian, for which the workshops have been found, and also instruments of bone, were in common use.
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CHAPTER III THE PEOPLES OF HISTORIC ITALY: THE ETRUSCANS; THE GREEKS
CHAPTER III THE PEOPLES OF HISTORIC ITALY: THE ETRUSCANS; THE GREEKS
The Euganei. In the mountain valleys, to the east and west of Lake Garda, lived the Euganei, a people of little historical importance, whose racial connections are as yet unknown. The Etruscans. The central plain of the Po, between the Ligurians to the west and the Veneti to the east, was controlled by the Etruscans. Their territory stretched northwards to the Alps and eastwards to the Adriatic coast. They likewise occupied the district called after them, Etruria, to the south of the Apennines,
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CHAPTER IV EARLY ROME TO THE FALL OF THE MONARCHY
CHAPTER IV EARLY ROME TO THE FALL OF THE MONARCHY
At one or more points within the cantons there soon developed small towns ( oppida ), usually located on hilltops and fortified, at first with earthen, later with stone, walls. These towns served as market-places and as points of refuge in time of danger for the people of the pagus . There developed an artisan and mercantile element, and there the aristocratic element of the population early took up their abode, i. e., the wealthier landholders, who could leave to others the immediate oversight
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CHAPTER V THE EXPANSION OF ROME TO THE UNIFICATION OF THE ITALIAN PENINSULA: c. 509–265 B. C.
CHAPTER V THE EXPANSION OF ROME TO THE UNIFICATION OF THE ITALIAN PENINSULA: c. 509–265 B. C.
Veii. In addition to these frequent but not continuous wars, the Romans had to sustain a serious conflict with the powerful Etruscan city of Veii, situated about 12 miles to the north of Rome, across the Tiber. The causes of the struggle are uncertain, but war broke out in 402, shortly after the Romans had gained possession of Fidenae, a town which controlled a crossing of the Tiber above the city of Rome. According to tradition the Romans maintained a blockade of Veii for eleven years before it
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CHAPTER VI THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROME TO 287 B. C.
CHAPTER VI THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROME TO 287 B. C.
The Senate. At the side of the magistrates stood the Senate, a body of three hundred members, who acted in an advisory capacity to the officials, and possessed the power of sanctioning or vetoing laws passed by the Assembly of the People. The senators were nominated by the consuls from the patrician order and held office for life. The comitia curiata. During the early years of the Republic, the popular Assembly, which had the power of electing the consuls and passing or rejecting such measures a
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CHAPTER VII EARLY RELIGION AND SOCIETY
CHAPTER VII EARLY RELIGION AND SOCIETY
The importance of ritual. The Romans, while recognizing their dependence upon divine powers, considered that their relation to them was of the nature of a contract. If man observed all proper ritual in his worship, the god was bound to act propitiously: if the god granted man’s desire he must be rewarded with an offering. If man failed in his duty, the god punished him: if the god refused to hearken, man was not bound to continue his worship. Thus Roman religion consisted essentially in the perf
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CHAPTER VIII ROMAN DOMINATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN; THE FIRST PHASE—THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE; 265–201 B. C.
CHAPTER VIII ROMAN DOMINATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN; THE FIRST PHASE—THE STRUGGLE WITH CARTHAGE; 265–201 B. C.
The aim of this policy was to secure Egyptian domination in the Aegean, among the states of Southern Greece, and in Phoenicia, whose value lay in the forests of the Lebanon mountains. To carry it into effect the Ptolemies were obliged to support a navy which would give them the command of the sea in the eastern Mediterranean. However, the occupation of their outlying possessions brought Egypt into perpetual conflict with Macedon and Syria, whose rulers made continued efforts to oust the Ptolemie
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CHAPTER IX ROMAN DOMINATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN THE SECOND PHASE: ROME AND THE GREEK EAST, 200–167 B. C.
CHAPTER IX ROMAN DOMINATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN THE SECOND PHASE: ROME AND THE GREEK EAST, 200–167 B. C.
The appeal for Roman intervention: 201 B. C. But the operations of the forces of Philip in the Aegean brought him into war with Rhodes and with Attalus, King of Pergamon, while in Greece a quarrel, which developed between some of his allies and the Athenians, involved him in hostilities with the latter. From these three states and from Egypt, which, having been unable to prevent Antiochus from occupying her Syrian possessions, was now threatened with invasion, envoys were sent to Rome, to reques
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CHAPTER X TERRITORIAL EXPANSION IN THREE CONTINENTS: 167–133 B. C.
CHAPTER X TERRITORIAL EXPANSION IN THREE CONTINENTS: 167–133 B. C.
This policy of expansion resulted in prolonged wars in Spain, the annexation of Carthage and Macedon, the establishment of direct control over Greece, and the acquisition of territory in Asia Minor. The new tendencies become apparent shortly before 150 B. C. The revolts of the Celtiberians and the Lusitanians: 154–139 B. C. In 154 B. C. revolts broke out in both Hither and Farther Spain. A series of long and bloody campaigns ensued, which were prolonged by the incapacity, cruelty and faithlessne
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CHAPTER XI THE ROMAN STATE AND THE EMPIRE: 265–133 B. C.
CHAPTER XI THE ROMAN STATE AND THE EMPIRE: 265–133 B. C.
The higher magistrates were simply committees of senators elected by the assemblies. Their interests were those of the Senate as a whole, and constitutional practice required them to seek its advice upon all matters of importance. The Senate assigned to the consuls and praetors their spheres of duty, appointed pro-magistrates and allotted them their commands, and no contracts let by the censors were valid unless approved by the Senate. Except when the consuls were in the city, the Senate control
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CHAPTER XII THE STRUGGLE OF THE OPTIMATES AND THE POPULARES: 133–78 B. C.
CHAPTER XII THE STRUGGLE OF THE OPTIMATES AND THE POPULARES: 133–78 B. C.
The question at issue was the right of the Senate to direct the policy of Rome, and this right was challenged by the tribunate and the Assembly of Tribes, by the equestrian order, and by the great military leaders who appeared in the course of civil and foreign wars. For in spite of these unceasing internal disorders this century marks an imperial expansion which rivalled that of the era of the Punic and Macedonian Wars. In Gaul the Roman sway was extended to the Rhine and the Ocean; in the east
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CHAPTER XIII THE RISE OF POMPEY THE GREAT: 78–60 B. C.
CHAPTER XIII THE RISE OF POMPEY THE GREAT: 78–60 B. C.
The man who first realized the value of the extraordinary command as a path to power was Pompey the Great. The revolt of Lepidus. It was not to be expected that Sulla’s measures would long remain unassailed. Those dispossessed of their property, those disqualified for office, and the equestrians who sought to regain control of the courts, were all anxious to undo part of his work. They found a leader in Lepidus, who as consul in 78 B. C. , the very year of Sulla’s death, sought to renew the dist
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CHAPTER XIV THE RIVALRY OF POMPEY AND CAESAR: CAESAR’S DICTATORSHIP; 59–44 B. C.
CHAPTER XIV THE RIVALRY OF POMPEY AND CAESAR: CAESAR’S DICTATORSHIP; 59–44 B. C.
The defeat of the Helvetii and Ariovistus: 58 B. C. In 58 B. C. , when Caesar entered upon his Gallic command, the Roman province in Transalpine Gaul ( Gallia Narbonensis ) embraced the coast districts from the Alps to the borders of Spain and the land between the Alps and the Rhone as far north as Lake Geneva. The country which stretched from the Pyrenees to the Rhine, and from the Rhone to the ocean was called Gallia comata or “long-haired Gaul,” and was occupied by a large number of peoples o
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CHAPTER XV THE PASSING OF THE REPUBLIC: 44–27 B. C.
CHAPTER XV THE PASSING OF THE REPUBLIC: 44–27 B. C.
Antony underestimated the capacities of this rather sickly youth and continued to refuse him recognition, but was soon made aware of his mistake. He himself was anxious to occupy his province of Cisalpine Gaul, and since Decimus Brutus refused to evacuate it, Antony determined to drive him out and obtained permission to recall for that purpose the four legions from Macedonia. Before their arrival Octavian raised a force among Caesar’s veterans in Campania, and on the march from Brundisium to Rom
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CHAPTER XVI THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPATE: 27 B. C.–14 A. D.
CHAPTER XVI THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPATE: 27 B. C.–14 A. D.
The imperium. Nothing had contributed more directly to the failure of the republican form of government than the growth of the professional army and the inability of the Senate to control its commanders. Therefore, it was absolutely necessary for the guardian of peace and of the constitution to concentrate the supreme military authority in his own hands. Consequently on 13 January, 27 B. C. , the birthday of the new order, Octavian, by vote of the Assembly and Senate, received for a period of te
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CHAPTER XVII THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN LINE AND THE FLAVIANS: 14–96 A. D.
CHAPTER XVII THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN LINE AND THE FLAVIANS: 14–96 A. D.
Character and policy. Tiberius was now fifty-six years of age. He had spent the greater part of his life in the public service, and consequently had a full appreciation of the burden of responsibility which the princeps must assume. He was the incarnation of the old Roman sense of duty to the state, and at the same time exhibited the proud reserve of the Roman patricians. Stern in his maintenance of law and order, he made an excellent subordinate, but when called upon to guide the policy of stat
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CHAPTER XVIII FROM NERVA TO DIOCLETIAN: 96–285 A. D.
CHAPTER XVIII FROM NERVA TO DIOCLETIAN: 96–285 A. D.
The alimenta. Nerva’s administration benefitted Italy in particular. Not only were the taxes and other obligations of the Italians lessened, but the so-called alimentary system was devised in the interests of poor farmers and the children of poor parents. Under this system of state charity, sums of money were lent to poor landholders at low rates of interest on the security of their land. The interest from these loans was paid over to their respective municipalities and expended by them in suppo
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CHAPTER XIX THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE PRINCIPATE
CHAPTER XIX THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE PRINCIPATE
The Senate’s loss of administrative power. I. Rome and Italy. The constitutional history of the principate is the story of the gradual absorption of the Senate’s powers by the princeps and the supplanting of the Senate’s officers by those in the imperial service. It has been well said that Augustus aimed at the impossible when he sought to be the chief magistrate in the state without being at the same time the head of the administration. He had intended that the Senate should conduct the adminis
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CHAPTER XX RELIGION AND SOCIETY
CHAPTER XX RELIGION AND SOCIETY
A new feature of Roman society under the principate was the growth of the imperial court. In spite of the wishes of Augustus and some of his successors to live on a footing of equality with the rest of the nobility, it was inevitable that the exceptional political power of the princeps should give a corresponding importance to his household organization. Definite offices developed within the imperial household not only for the conduct of public business but also for the control of slaves and fre
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CHAPTER XXI FROM DIOCLETIAN TO THEODOSIUS THE GREAT; THE INTEGRITY OF THE EMPIRE MAINTAINED; 285–395 A. D.
CHAPTER XXI FROM DIOCLETIAN TO THEODOSIUS THE GREAT; THE INTEGRITY OF THE EMPIRE MAINTAINED; 285–395 A. D.
Regulation of the succession. Diocletian saw in the absence of a strict regulation of the succession a fertile cause of civil strife. To do away with this, and to discourage the rise of usurpers, as well as to relieve the Augusti of a part of their military and administrative burdens, he determined to appoint two Caesars as the assistants and destined successors of Maximian and himself. His choice fell upon Gaius Galerius and Flavius Valerius Constantius, both Illyrian officers of tried military
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CHAPTER XXII THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OF THE LATE EMPIRE
CHAPTER XXII THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OF THE LATE EMPIRE
As the sole author of the laws, the emperor was also their final interpreter; and since he acted under divine guidance those who questioned his decisions, and those who neglected or transgressed his ordinances, were both alike guilty of sacrilege. The emperor was held to be freed from the laws in the sense that he was not responsible for his legislative and administrative acts, yet he was bound by the laws in that he had to adhere to the general principles and forms of the established law of the
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CHAPTER XXIII THE GERMANIC OCCUPATION OF ITALY AND THE WESTERN PROVINCES: 395–493 A. D.
CHAPTER XXIII THE GERMANIC OCCUPATION OF ITALY AND THE WESTERN PROVINCES: 395–493 A. D.
The military dictators. During this period of disintegration, the real power in the western empire was in the hands of a series of military dictators, who with the office of master of the soldiers secured the position of commander-in-chief of the imperial armies. Beside them the emperors exercised only nominal authority. But as these dictators were either barbarians themselves, or depended upon barbarian troops for their support, they were continually intrigued against and opposed by the Roman o
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CHAPTER XXIV THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN: 518–565 A. D.
CHAPTER XXIV THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN: 518–565 A. D.
The settlement of the Goths on the land took the form of hospitium or quartering. By this arrangement the Roman landholders gave up to the Goths two thirds of their property, both the land itself and the cattle, coloni and slaves which were on it. The shares which the Goths received were not subject to taxation. For the purposes of administration the Roman provincial and municipal divisions were retained ( provinciae and civitates ), the former being placed under duces and the latter under comit
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CHAPTER XXV RELIGIOUS AND INTELLECTUAL LIFE IN THE LATE EMPIRE
CHAPTER XXV RELIGIOUS AND INTELLECTUAL LIFE IN THE LATE EMPIRE
The persecution of paganism. Constantine the Great adhered strictly to his policy of religious toleration and, although an active supporter of Christianity, took no measures against the pagan cults except to forbid the private sacrifices and practice of certain types of magical rites. He held the title of pontifex maximus and consequently was at the head of the official pagan worship. With his sons, Constantius and Constans, the Christian persecution of the pagan began. In 341 they prohibited pu
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EPILOGUE
EPILOGUE
The papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. The weakness of the imperial authority in the West led to the strengthening of the papacy and its acquisition of political power in Italy. It was the papacy also which kept alive in western Europe the ideal of a universal imperial church, for the whole of western Christendom came to acknowledge the supremacy of the Roman see. Nor was the conception of a reëstablished western empire lost to view; and it was destined to find realization in the Holy Roman empir
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
The titles given below are intended to form a group of selected references for the guidance of students who may desire a more detailed treatment of the various problems of Roman history than has been given in the text. For the sources, as well as for a more detailed bibliography, readers may consult B. Niese, Grundriss der römischen Geschichte , 4th ed., 1910, and G. W. Botsford, A Syllabus of Roman History , 1915. Introduction Leuze, O., Die römische Jahrzählung ; Lewis, Sir G. C., The Credibil
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Leuze, O., Die römische Jahrzählung ; Lewis, Sir G. C., The Credibility of Early Roman History ; Niese, B., Römische Geschichte , pp. 10–17, and passim ; Schanz, M., Geschichte der römischen Litteratur ; Kornemann, E., Der Priestercodex in der Regia ; Wachsmuth, C., Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte . Chapter I Duruy, V., Histoire des Romains , i, pp. i–xxxiv; Encyclopedia Brittanica, 11th ed., art. Italy ; Kiepert, H., Manual of Ancient Geography , ch. ix; Nissen, H., Italische Lan
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