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27 chapters
Editor’s Introduction
Editor’s Introduction
Joseph Butler was born at Wantage, England, May 18th, 1692, the youngest of eight children. The biographies of that day were few and meagre; and in few cases is this so much to be regretted as in Butler’s. It would have been both interesting and profitable to trace the development and occupations of one of the mightiest of human minds. But no cotemporary gathered up the incidents of his life, and now all efforts to elicit them have been without success. His father was a prosperous dry-goods merc
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Editor’s Preface.
Editor’s Preface.
The text is the result of a careful collation of the various principal editions. Occasionally solecisms are corrected, and a word transposed or put in italics, when a sentence could thus be made perspicuous. The author had a fashion of beginning a large proportion of his sentences with “and,” “but,” “now,” “indeed,” “however,” &c., which often served to perplex, and in such cases they have been omitted. Long paragraphs, comprehending different topics, have been so divided as to correspon
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II. The use and application of probabilities.
II. The use and application of probabilities.
Shall not go further into the nature of probable evidence, nor inquire why likeness begets presumption and conviction; nor how far analogical reasoning can be reduced to a system ; but shall only show how just and conclusive this mode of reasoning is....
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PART I.
PART I.
Will not discuss the subject of identity; but will consider what analogy suggests from changes which do not destroy; and thus see whether it is not probable that we shall live hereafter. The question of a future life is rendered momentous by our capacity for happiness and misery. Especially if that happiness or misery depends on our present conduct. We should feel the deepest solicitude on this subject. And that if there were no proof of a future life and interest, other than the probabilities j
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PART II.
PART II.
Every one must admit that we need a revelation. Few, if any, could reason out a system, even of natural religion. If they could, there is no probability that they would. Such as might, would still feel the want of revelation. To say that Christianity is superfluous, is as wild as to say all are happy. No exactness in attending to natural religion can make Christianity of small importance. If Christianity be from God, we must obey, unless we know all his reasons for giving it: and also that those
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Advertisement prefixed to the First Edition.
Advertisement prefixed to the First Edition.
If the reader should here meet with any thing which he had not before attended to, it will not be in the observations upon the constitution and course of nature, these being all obvious, but in the application of them; in which, though there is nothing but what appears to me of some real weight, and therefore of great importance, yet he will observe several things, which will appear to him of very little, if he can think things to be of little importance, which are of any real weight at all, upo
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INTRODUCTION.
INTRODUCTION.
Probable evidence is essentially distinguished from demonstrative by this, that it admits of degrees; and of all variety of them, from the highest moral certainty, to the very lowest presumption. We cannot indeed say a thing is probably true upon one very slight presumption for it; because, as there may be probabilities on both sides of a question, there may be some against it; and though there be not, yet a slight presumption does not beget that degree of conviction, which is implied in saying
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CHAPTER I. A FUTURE LIFE.[27]
CHAPTER I. A FUTURE LIFE.[27]
Strange difficulties have been raised by some concerning personal identity, or the sameness of living agents, implied in the notion of our existing now and hereafter, or in any two successive moments; which, whoever thinks it worth while, may see considered in the first dissertation at the end of this treatise. But without regard to any of them here, let us consider what the analogy of nature, and the several changes which we have undergone, and those which we know we may undergo without being d
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CHAPTER II. THE GOVERNMENT OF GOD BY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.
CHAPTER II. THE GOVERNMENT OF GOD BY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.
That which makes the question concerning a future life to be of so great importance to us, is our capacity of happiness and misery. And that which makes the consideration of it to be of so great importance to us, is the supposition of our happiness and misery hereafter depending upon our actions here. Indeed, without this, curiosity could not but sometimes bring a subject, in which we may be so highly interested, to our thoughts; especially upon the mortality of others, or the near prospect of o
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CHAPTER III.[59] THE MORAL GOVERNMENT OF GOD.
CHAPTER III.[59] THE MORAL GOVERNMENT OF GOD.
As the manifold appearances of design, and of final causes, in the constitution of the world, prove it to be the work of an intelligent mind, so the particular final causes of pleasure and pain distributed amongst his creatures, prove that they are under his government; what may be called his natural government of creatures endued with sense and reason. This implies somewhat more than seems usually attended to, when we speak of God’s natural government of the world. It implies government of the
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CHAPTER IV. PROBATION, AS IMPLYING TRIAL, DIFFICULTIES, AND DANGER.[84]
CHAPTER IV. PROBATION, AS IMPLYING TRIAL, DIFFICULTIES, AND DANGER.[84]
The general doctrine of religion, that our present life is a state of probation for a future one, comprehends under it several particular things, distinct from each other. The first and most common meaning of it seems to be, that our future interest is now depending, and depending upon ourselves; that we have scope and opportunities here, for that good and bad behavior, which God will reward and punish hereafter; together with temptations to one, as well as inducements of reason to the other. An
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CHAPTER V. PROBATION, AS INTENDED FOR MORAL DISCIPLINE AND IMPROVEMENT.
CHAPTER V. PROBATION, AS INTENDED FOR MORAL DISCIPLINE AND IMPROVEMENT.
From the consideration of our being in a probation-state, of so much difficulty and hazard, naturally arises the question, how we came to be placed in it? But such a general inquiry as this would be found involved in insuperable difficulties. For, though some of these difficulties would be lessened, by observing that all wickedness is voluntary, as is implied in its very notion; and that many of the miseries of life have apparent good effects: yet, when we consider other circumstances belonging
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CHAPTER VI. THE OPINION OF NECESSITY, CONSIDERED AS INFLUENCING PRACTICE.
CHAPTER VI. THE OPINION OF NECESSITY, CONSIDERED AS INFLUENCING PRACTICE.
Throughout the foregoing treatise it appears, that the condition of mankind, considered as inhabitants of this world only, and under the government of God which we experience, is greatly analogous to our condition, as designed for another world, or as under that farther government, which religion teaches us. If therefore any assert, as a fatalist must, that the opinion of universal necessity is reconcilable with the former; there immediately arises a question in the way of analogy, whether he mu
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CHAPTER VII. THE GOVERNMENT OF GOD, CONSIDERED AS A SCHEME OR CONSTITUTION, IMPERFECTLY COMPREHENDED.
CHAPTER VII. THE GOVERNMENT OF GOD, CONSIDERED AS A SCHEME OR CONSTITUTION, IMPERFECTLY COMPREHENDED.
Though it be acknowledged, as it cannot but be, that the analogy of nature gives a strong credibility to the general doctrine of religion, and to the several particular things contained in it, considered as so many matters of fact; and likewise that it shows this credibility not to be destroyed by any notions of necessity: still, objections may be insisted upon, against the wisdom, equity, and goodness of the divine government implied in the notion of religion, and against the method by which th
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CONCLUSION.
CONCLUSION.
The observations of the last chapter lead us to consider this little scene of human life, in which we are so busily engaged, as having a reference, of some sort or other, to a much larger plan of things. Whether we are, any way, related to the more distant parts of the boundless universe, into which we are brought, is altogether uncertain. But it is evident, that the course of things, which comes within our view, is connected with some things, past, present, and future, beyond it. [131] So that
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CHAPTER I. THE IMPORTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY.[137]
CHAPTER I. THE IMPORTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY.[137]
Some persons, upon pretence of the sufficiency of the light of nature, avowedly reject all revelation, as in its very notion incredible, and what must be fictitious. And indeed it is certain, no revelation would have been given, had the light of nature been sufficient in such a sense, as to render one not wanted and useless. But no man, in seriousness and simplicity of mind, can possibly think it so, who considers the state of religion in the heathen world before revelation, and its present stat
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CHAPTER II. SUPPOSED PRESUMPTION AGAINST A REVELATION CONSIDERED AS MIRACULOUS.
CHAPTER II. SUPPOSED PRESUMPTION AGAINST A REVELATION CONSIDERED AS MIRACULOUS.
Having shown the importance of the Christian revelation, and the obligations which we are under seriously to attend to it, upon supposition of its truth, or its credibility, the next thing in order, is to consider the supposed presumptions against revelation in general; which shall be the subject of this chapter: and the objections against the Christian in particular, which shall be the subject of some following ones. [159] For it seems the most natural method, to remove the prejudices against C
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CHAPTER III. OUR INCAPACITY OF JUDGING, WHAT WERE TO BE EXPECTED IN A REVELATION; AND THE CREDIBILITY, FROM ANALOGY, THAT IT MUST CONTAIN THINGS LIABLE TO OBJECTIONS.
CHAPTER III. OUR INCAPACITY OF JUDGING, WHAT WERE TO BE EXPECTED IN A REVELATION; AND THE CREDIBILITY, FROM ANALOGY, THAT IT MUST CONTAIN THINGS LIABLE TO OBJECTIONS.
Besides the objections against the evidence for Christianity, many are alleged against the scheme of it; against the whole manner in which it is put and left with the world; as well as against several particular relations in Scripture: objections drawn from the deficiencies of revelation: from things in it appearing to men foolishness ; [171] from its containing matters of offence, which have led, and it must have been foreseen would lead, into strange enthusiasm and superstition, and be made to
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CHAPTER IV. CHRISTIANITY, CONSIDERED AS A SCHEME OR CONSTITUTION, IMPERFECTLY COMPREHENDED.
CHAPTER IV. CHRISTIANITY, CONSIDERED AS A SCHEME OR CONSTITUTION, IMPERFECTLY COMPREHENDED.
As hath been now shown, [188] the analogy of nature renders it highly credible beforehand, that, supposing a revelation to be made, it must contain many things very different from what we should have expected, and such as appear open to great objections: and that this observation, in good measure, takes off the force of those objections, or rather precludes them. It may be alleged, that this is a very partial answer to such objections, or a very unsatisfactory way of obviating them: because it d
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CHAPTER V. THE PARTICULAR SYSTEM OF CHRISTIANITY; THE APPOINTMENT OF A MEDIATOR, AND THE REDEMPTION OF THE WORLD BY HIM.
CHAPTER V. THE PARTICULAR SYSTEM OF CHRISTIANITY; THE APPOINTMENT OF A MEDIATOR, AND THE REDEMPTION OF THE WORLD BY HIM.
There is not, I think, any thing relating to Christianity, which has been more objected against, than the mediation of Christ, in some or other of its parts. Yet upon thorough consideration, there seems nothing less justly liable to it. [207] For, I. The whole analogy of nature removes all imagined presumption against the general notion of a Mediator between God and man . [208] For we find all living creatures are brought into the world, and their life in infancy is preserved, by the instrumenta
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CHAPTER VI. THE WANT OF UNIVERSALITY IN REVELATION; AND THE SUPPOSED DEFICIENCY IN THE PROOF OF IT.
CHAPTER VI. THE WANT OF UNIVERSALITY IN REVELATION; AND THE SUPPOSED DEFICIENCY IN THE PROOF OF IT.
It has been thought by some persons, that if the evidence of revelation appears doubtful, this itself turns into a positive argument against it: because it cannot be supposed, that, if it were true, it would be left to subsist upon doubtful evidence. And the objection against revelation from its not being universal is often insisted upon as of great weight. The weakness of these opinions may be shown, by observing the suppositions on which they are founded: which are really such as these; that i
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CHAPTER VII. THE PARTICULAR EVIDENCE FOR CHRISTIANITY.
CHAPTER VII. THE PARTICULAR EVIDENCE FOR CHRISTIANITY.
The presumptions against revelation, and objections against the general scheme of Christianity, and particular things relating to it, being removed, there remains to be considered, what positive evidence we have for the truth of it; chiefly in order to see, what the analogy of nature suggests with regard to that evidence, and the objections against it: or to see what is, and is allowed to be, the plain natural rule of judgment and of action, in our temporal concerns, in cases where we have the s
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CHAPTER VIII. OBJECTIONS AGAINST ARGUING FROM THE ANALOGY OF NATURE, TO RELIGION.
CHAPTER VIII. OBJECTIONS AGAINST ARGUING FROM THE ANALOGY OF NATURE, TO RELIGION.
If every one would consider, with such attention as they are bound, even in point of morality, to consider, what they judge and give characters of; the occasion of this chapter would be, in some good measure at least, superseded. But since this is not to be expected; for some we find do not concern themselves to understand even what they write against: since this treatise, in common with most others, lies open to objections, which may appear very material to thoughtful men at first sight; and, b
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CONCLUSION.
CONCLUSION.
Whatever account may be given of the strange inattention and disregard, in some ages and countries, to a matter of such importance as religion; it would, before experience, be incredible, that there should be the like disregard in those, who have had the moral system of the world laid before them, as it is by Christianity, and often inculcated upon them: because this moral system carries in it a good degree of evidence for its truth, upon its being barely proposed to our thoughts. There is no ne
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In the first copy of these papers, I had inserted the two following dissertations into the chapters, on a Future Life , and on the Moral Government of God ; with which they are closely connected. But as these do not directly fall under the title of the foregoing treatise, and would have kept the subject of it too long out of sight, it seems more proper to place them by themselves....
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DISSERTATION I. Personal Identity.
DISSERTATION I. Personal Identity.
Whether we are to live in a future state, as it is the most important question which can possibly be asked, so it is the most intelligible one which can be expressed in language. Yet strange perplexities have been raised about the meaning of that identity or sameness of person, which is implied in the notion of our living now and hereafter, or in any two successive moments. And the solution of these difficulties hath been stranger than the difficulties themselves. For, personal identity has been
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DISSERTATION II. The Nature of Virtue.
DISSERTATION II. The Nature of Virtue.
That which renders beings capable of moral government, is their having a moral nature, and moral faculties of perception and of action. Brute creatures are impressed and actuated by various instincts and propensions: so also are we. But additional to this, we have a capacity of reflecting upon actions and characters, and making them an object to our thought: and on doing this, we naturally and unavoidably approve some actions, under the peculiar view of their being virtuous and of good desert; a
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