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Highways And Highway Transportation

George R. Chatburn

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HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION

HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION

© Major Hamilton Maxwell © Underwood and Underwood STORM KING HIGHWAY A Great Engineering Project Along the Hudson between Cornwall and West Point, N. Y. HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION BY GEORGE R. CHATBURN, A.M., C.E. Professor of Applied Mechanics and Machine Design Lecturer on Highway Engineering The University of Nebraska NEW YORK THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY PUBLISHERS Copyright 1923, by THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY Printed in the United States of America...

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PREFACE

PREFACE

The following pages on Highways and Highway Transportation do not pretend to be an exhaustive treatise on the subject, but rather a glimpse of the vast development of the humble road and its office as an agency for transportation. Possibly the grandeur of the mountains is best appreciated by one who lives among them, who climbs their acclivitous heights, who daily experiences their power and majesty, and measures their magnitude by grim muscular exertion. But, even so, it would be foolish to con

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LIST OF INSERTS

LIST OF INSERTS

HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION As the several peoples inhabiting the earth have progressed from barbarism through the different stages of civilization, the transportation occasioned by their wants and desires has kept a close pace. By a study of the transportation—travel, movement of goods and commodities—and the means and facilities for its accomplishment, the relative civilization of any people, their rank and position may be accurately surveyed, graduated, and estimated. The highways of

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Stages in Civilization.

Stages in Civilization.

—Sociologists differ as to what constitute the several stages of civilization. One might trace the development of man through literature, another through art, another through government; others consider his economic activities the more fundamental factors. The most widely used economic classification, according to Ely, [1] is based upon the increasing power of man over nature and consists of (1) Direct Appropriation, (2) The Pastoral Stage, (3) The Agricultural Stage, (4) The Handicraft Stage, a

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Stage of Direct Appropriation.

Stage of Direct Appropriation.

—This stage covers the whole course of prehistoric man from the time the first ape stood erect some 500,000 years ago [2] through the stone, bronze, and iron ages to the age of literature and art. During these long years civilization traveled far, for the least cultured savages observed have advanced not only away beyond the highest of the lower animals but also beyond the lowest intellectual estate of which human beings may be supposed capable of subsisting. And from the lowest to the highest o

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The Pastoral Stage.

The Pastoral Stage.

—In the process of evolution certain animals undoubtedly were domesticated and used for food. Whether or not this domestication preceded or followed primitive agriculture or “hoe culture,” is not important, as the pastoral stage of culture evidently lies between the hunting and the farming stages. The written history of mankind indicates that this stage largely prevailed among the earlier Hebrew, Greek, and Teutonic races. A private ownership in cattle and herds was recognized, but the necessity

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The Agricultural Stage.

The Agricultural Stage.

—The growing and storage of crops, increased by the use of animal power, greatly changed the economic and social conditions of man. It made possible and profitable the living in fixed habitations, even in communities, and this brought out the needs of rules of government. But even yet each family provided without the assistance of others for practically all its own needs. In planting, reaping, threshing, grinding the meal and cooking, the family became the unit. No great division of labor was ye

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The Manorial and Feudal Systems.

The Manorial and Feudal Systems.

—In England and on the continent during the later years of this stage there were developed the manorial or feudal forms of government. The people lived largely in villages each controlled by a lord or earl (eorl) and to whom in return for his protection, the use of land, and other favors, they were bound to return to him service in the cultivation of his land and in waging war when called upon to do so. The lords in turn held their allegiance to the king. Some handicraftsmen were among the retai

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The Handicraft Stage.

The Handicraft Stage.

—In England this stage lasted through approximately five centuries, from 1200 to 1700. The merging of one period into another came about so gradually that a definite date can hardly be designated, and the time is so long that undoubtedly many changes occurred in the economic activities as well as in the government and literature of the people. While it is probable that merchants, middlemen who bought from one person and sold to another, had thrived throughout the earlier civilizations of Asia, A

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Craft-guilds.

Craft-guilds.

—Craftsmen of like occupations joined together in guilds also and they, too, became not only numerous but very influential. They regulated their own internal affairs and specified how many apprentices might be entered, and under what circumstances a man might become a journeyman or master craftsman. Numerous other guilds, social and religious, were extant throughout Europe....

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Effect upon Trade.

Effect upon Trade.

—The merchant guilds and the craft-guilds materially affected the production and trade of the community and country. The merchants of Phoenicia and later of Greece and Rome are said to have visited the British Isles to secure tin and copper. The great merchant guilds outfitted adventures to the ends of the then known world to secure the goods—whether they were silks, spices, furs or grain—in which they dealt. They were instrumental in the passage of laws encouraging and securing commerce. They t

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The Domestic System.

The Domestic System.

—All this made necessary the building of ships and harbors, and the improvement of internal highways of trade, and these in turn stimulated manufacture which as yet was carried on by hand. The family instead of the town or guild became the unit; apprentices were entered and kept, usually, as members of the family and worked along side the sons and daughters of the master. As these grew to manhood their pay, beginning with mere keep, was gradually increased with their work and responsibility unti

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Governmental Control.

Governmental Control.

—The numerous guilds reached their zenith during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and then gradually diminished in importance. Some of them, however, still remain active in London. During the recent World War several were engaged in welfare work. Guilds in France were destroyed or lapsed into desuetude during the revolution, 1791-1815. Those of Spain and Portugal likewise during the revolutionary years of 1833-40; of Austria and Germany in 1859-60 and of Italy in 1864. Guilds, as known in E

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Agriculture.

Agriculture.

—It might be thought that the agriculture of the preceding stage of development might wane. But not so; with the division of labor and improved transportation and marketing facilities agriculture received a great impetus. Larger tracts were farmed by the individual. Growing crops and stock became more of a business and from the lords of the manor was evolved the landed aristocracy of the country. To be sure, there were holders who cultivated their own soil, but much was held upon leaseholds for

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The Industrial Stage.

The Industrial Stage.

—This stage of economical civilization, while brought about gradually through many years as factories and special work shops came into existence, was nevertheless greatly accelerated by the inventions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The invention of the canal lock (it is a disputed question whether in Holland or in Italy) in the fourteenth century had made practicable the building of many canals throughout Europe, one of the largest across France connecting the Bay of Biscay with the

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Railways Developed.

Railways Developed.

—With power manufacturing and increased production due to the adoption of improved factory systems came still greater demand for transportation. Tramways had already been laid in 1676 for transporting coal from the mines to the sea. The rails were first made of scantling laid in the wheel ruts, then of straight rails of oak on which “one horse would draw from four or five chaldrons of coal.” Later (1765) cast-iron trammels 5 feet long by 4 inches wide were nailed to the wooden rails. These tramm

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Some Historic Roads and Their Influence.

Some Historic Roads and Their Influence.

—In the brief survey of the stages through which ordinarily a civilization passes note has frequently been made that as the world progresses so does the necessary transportation increase and improve in character. It is not contended that civilization follows the improvement of transportation, although that is no doubt sometimes the case, but that the state of transportation follows up and down with the state of civilization. Very likely the same could be truthfully said of other elements of civi

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Early Highways.

Early Highways.

—To return to some of the important earlier highways. All evidence seems to indicate that civilization had its origin in western Asia. Early history speaks of the civilization and culture of Arabia and Egypt, of Assyria and Persia. Coeval with these civilizations were trade and commerce. Great caravans of camels traversed the sandy highway with their accompanying merchants carrying many products of many lands—frankincense and myrrh from Arabia; cloths and carpets from Babylon and Sardis; shawls

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Roman Roads.

Roman Roads.

—The roads in Rome bore such a prominent part in the civilization that they could not be entirely overlooked by contemporaneous writers. The roads are often described as military roads because they were primarily planned to transport soldiers quickly and easily to any desirable part of the empire. But no doubt the greatness of Rome was due more to the traffic in goods and people brought to and taken away from her precincts by these roads than to military prowess. Her roads were the arteries and

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Pre-historic American Roads.

Pre-historic American Roads.

—When America was discovered it was sparsely settled with tribes of semi-civilized peoples. The ordinary aborigine was in the hunting and fishing stage, just beginning to cultivate crops. True, tribes claimed regions and attempted by force to keep other tribes from trespassing thereon. They had no literature save perhaps a few rough diagrams or drawings. There was no trade or commerce and consequently no roads except mere trails. Their methods of transportation consisted in walking or in paddlin

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Conclusion.

Conclusion.

—If the story, very briefly given, of these old roads does not verify the thesis that transportation is a measure of civilization, a view might be taken of the tribes and peoples now living in the various parts of the earth. If the character of the transportation of the tribes of Africa and of Asia, of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, the least civilized now known, be compared with that of those nations considered most civilized, the same general conclusion would be drawn. Compare the railways,

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Davis, William Stearns , “The Influence of Wealth on Imperial Rome,” pp. 85-105. The Macmillan Company, New York. Ely, Richard T. , “Outlines of Economics,” The Macmillan Co., New York. Chapter III. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Articles on the “Steam Engine,” “Yarn,” “Weaving,” and “Railway.” Green, John Richard , “History of the English People,” Book IX, Chapter III. Havell, H. L. , “Republican Rome,” p. 112, Harrap &amp; Co., London, 1914. Heitland, W. E. , “The Roman Republic,” University Pr

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The Birch Bark Canoe.

The Birch Bark Canoe.

—Travel from place to place was at first insignificant and what little there was was carried on by walking, horseback riding, or by boat. Settlement, which had begun on the ocean or at the head of ocean navigation on inlets or rivers, was eventually pushed farther inland. The rivers and other waterways being at hand were utilized; the birch-bark canoe, the dugout, and the plank boat, furnished the principal vehicles of transportation. The Indians were very expert in the manufacture and operation

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Meagerness of Early Roads.

Meagerness of Early Roads.

—In the “History of Travel” [16] Mr. Dunbar quotes from a document in the New York Historical Society’s collection, written by Benjamin Fletcher, Governor of His Majesty’s Province of New York, and dated 1694, which shows the lack of roadways or even passable trails in northern New York: “It is impossible to march with any party of men to Canada by Land, either in winter or summer, but they must passe a Considerable Part of ye way over ye Lake, ye land on each side being extream steep and Rocky

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Settlement Follows Waterways; Portages.

Settlement Follows Waterways; Portages.

—The opening up for settlement of new territory necessitated means of communication. That near waterways was most easily reached and most easily kept within reach of older settlements and was, therefore, naturally first taken up and occupied. To penetrate farther the interior made it necessary to cross from one water system to another. As necessity arose the trails were widened into roads and often at these portages were established forts and villages for protection against the natives and to fa

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Lines of Travel.

Lines of Travel.

—To reach the Ohio Valley travelers might go by way of the north along the routes just mentioned to the Great Lakes, thence to the interior of Ohio, or they could leave the Mohawk and portage across to the upper waters of the Allegheny. The Indians gave trouble along these lines, so a more southerly route was often taken. Some of these, commencing on the north, were: Up the Susquehanna to its headwaters, portage to one or the other of tributaries which flow into the Allegheny near Kittanning; le

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Trails from the North.

Trails from the North.

—Traders from Virginia who reached far out in Tennessee and Kentucky found competition from those who came down by one of the several routes from the Great Lakes or up from the lower Mississippi. A route left Lake Erie at what is now Cleveland, passed up the Cuyahoga, portaged across to a tributary of the Ohio, then into Kentucky; another left the Lake at Sandusky, followed the Miami, crossed to the Scioto, thence down to the Ohio, across Kentucky to Cumberland Gap, sometimes called the Scioto t

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Boone’s Trace, or The Wilderness Road.

Boone’s Trace, or The Wilderness Road.

—This road is said to be the first road built into the wilderness for the purpose of encouraging settlement and development. In the late years of the nineteenth century it was no uncommon thing for a railroad to precede settlement, but at the beginning of the eighteenth century roads were, in America, made largely for military purposes or where demanded by the traffic of earlier settlement. Daniel Boone, the noted hunter and explorer, had several times left his home in North Carolina to hunt and

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Calk’s Diary.

Calk’s Diary.

—One of the first parties to make use of Boone’s Trace was that of Henderson in response to Boone’s letter heretofore quoted. A naïve diary kept by one of its members, William Calk, is still in existence. It has been made available by the publications of the Filson Club. Speed [25] and Dunbar [26] quote it extensively. Theodore (afterward President) Roosevelt [27] says “the writer’s mind was evidently as vigorous as his language was terse and untrammeled.” While spelling, capitalization, and pun

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Marquette’s Explorations.

Marquette’s Explorations.

—Religious devotion and zeal has done much for the settlement of North America: the Puritans in New England, the Quakers in Pennsylvania, the Catholics in Maryland and Canada, and very much later the Mormons in Utah are familiar examples. A French Jesuit missionary, Jacques Marquette, who with another, Claude Bablon, had founded (1668) a settlement at St. Mary’s on the falls between Lakes Superior and Huron, said to be the first French settlement within the present boundaries of the United State

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The Lewis and Clark Expedition.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition.

—Another exploring expedition sought a path to extend the commerce of the United States in the far Oregon country. The great Rocky Mountain ranges precluded direct approach. The idea had evidently fastened itself upon Thomas Jefferson, even before he became president, that the Missouri River might be made the highway across the continent, and that trade and commerce thus engendered would inure to the benefit of the country. Also being a highly educated man, he was deeply interested in extending

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Transcontinental Trails.

Transcontinental Trails.

—Following the purchase of the Louisiana territory there was, of course, an extension of settlement to the prairies beyond the Missouri. The State of Missouri was early occupied and became a state in 1821, but it was many years later before other portions of the Louisiana Purchase were sufficiently settled to become territories. [32] The settlement of these lands, together with the opening up of Oregon and later California with its great gold rush, created a demand for transcontinental roads. Th

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Origin of the Oregon Trail.

Origin of the Oregon Trail.

—At Bellevue the Nebraska State Historical Society erected, June 23, 1910, a monument a part of the inscription on which reads: Commemorative of the Astorian Expedition organized June 23, 1810, by John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company. This Expedition discovered the Oregon Trail which spread knowledge of the Nebraska country leading to its occupancy by white people. John Jacob Astor’s purpose in organizing the Pacific Fur Company, a subsidiary of the American Fur Company, was to establish hims

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The Final Trail.

The Final Trail.

—The Trail as finally adopted and used by emigrants and freighters to Oregon in the “forties” started from Independence and Westport (outfitting stations near the present metropolis of Kansas City, Missouri) then followed in a general way the Kansas, Big Blue, and Little Blue Rivers to near the Platte, crossing over to the latter river a short distance west of the present city of Kearney. The trail here proceeded up the South bank to the forks, and from there up the North Fork to the Sweetwater

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Salt Lake Trail.

Salt Lake Trail.

—Many variations of the above described trail were in use. Travelers up the Missouri River disembarked at St. Joseph, Nebraska City, Plattsmouth and especially at Council Bluffs. The great Mormon trek was made from the last-named place. They reached the Platte River west of Omaha and followed it on the north bank, paralleling the Oregon Trail from Fort Kearney to Fort Laramie, where they crossed over and joined with the Oregon Trail through South Pass then leaving that trail turned south and wes

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Later California Trail.

Later California Trail.

—A continuation of the Salt Lake route north of Great Salt Lake and along the Humboldt River, across the desert to near Lake Tahoe, where there was a crossing through the Sierra Nevada Mountains, the Truckee Pass, thence to the Gold Diggings or across California by way of the American and Sacramento Rivers, was a trail very popular to California gold miners and was afterwards used by the overland stage, and known as the Later California Trail....

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Santa Fé Trail.

Santa Fé Trail.

—This road passed westward and a little south to the Arkansas River, which it followed to Bent’s Fort (Colorado), thence up Timpas Creek and over the Raton Pass to Las Vegas (New Mexico). Then westward through Apache Cañon to Santa Fé. This trail was too rough for wagon traffic, so later a route which crossed over south from the Arkansas to the Cimarron and meeting the old trail at Las Vegas was used....

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Gila and Spanish Trails.

Gila and Spanish Trails.

—Two routes were possible from Santa Fé. One southwestward by way of the Rio Grande and Gila Rivers into southern California. The other took a northwesterly direction up the Chama River, down the Dolores Valley, and across to the Grand River near the present site of Moab, Utah. Then west to the Sevier, up which it followed until it crossed over to the Virgin River; up this for a short distance then turned directly south-west across the Mohave desert toward Los Angeles. This last route received t

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Era of Turnpiking.

Era of Turnpiking.

—The need of better transportation facilities was “borne in” on the people of the eastern part of the country long before the west had been developed. The Indian trail, a single path,—for they always traveled in single file—gave way to the “tote path” over which each year the settler’s surplus crops were transported to market on pack animals. Even if they owned wheeled vehicles the roads were generally so bad they could not be used. However, wheeled vehicles were not many prior to 1800. When Bra

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Turnpike Roads.

Turnpike Roads.

—The construction of turnpike roads many of which were stoned was encouraged by a number of the states, especially by Pennsylvania. The Lancaster turnpike from Philadelphia to Lancaster was “stoned” in 1792 by throwing on it stones of all sizes. These were afterwards removed and stones “passing a 2-inch ring” substituted. This is said to have been the first scientifically built hard surfaced road in America. In 1800 Pennsylvania fostered the construction of a system of turnpikes (toll roads), by

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Wagon Road Desuetude.

Wagon Road Desuetude.

—The introduction of the steam railway with its quicker, better, and cheaper form of transportation put out of existence the freighting and coaching business of the turnpikes, in fact of all wagon roads. Roads which had had a thriving trade found their toll boxes scarcely held enough to maintain the gate keeper. As there was no adequate system of maintenance, although many of them had been macadamized, they gradually fell into a state of disrepair. Freighters and coachers gravitated westward or

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National Participation.

National Participation.

—The Revolutionary War had shown the need of roadways for quick intercourse between the seaboard and the trans-Alleghany regions. The efforts of the different states, still retaining their colonial jealousies, to secure the control of the trade of these regions emphasized the need of a unifying influence which would bring harmony. The debate proceeded in a desultory fashion for a number of years. Strict constitutionalists did not believe the national government has the authority to construct roa

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Extension of the Cumberland Highway.

Extension of the Cumberland Highway.

—The road immediately proved its worth. The mail coaches were placed upon it; great freight lines were established having their own stage houses and depots in towns along its way; inns and hotels thrived; apparently the “pulse of the nation beat to the steady throb of trade along its highway.” [42] Like the Appian Way it became noted the world over. The National , Good Intent , June Bug , and Pioneer stage coach lines were common names as are the Pennsylvania , New York Central , Burlington , an

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Adams, Henry , “Life of Albert Gallatin,” Edited by Henry Adams, Vol. I, pp. 78, 79, 305, 309, 370, 395. J. B. Lippincott &amp; Co., Philadelphia. Boone, Daniel , “Autobiography,” dictated to John Filson, 1784, is given also as an appendix to Hartley’s “Life of Daniel Boone.” Calk, William , “Diary of” in Filson Club publications. Doddridge, Joseph , “Notes on the Settlement of Indian Wars.” Chaps. I, XIII, XVIII, XXIV; First publication, 1824, Third—Rittenour &amp; Linsey, Pittsburgh, 1

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Canals.

Canals.

—Canals had shown their usefulness in England and other European countries, for transporting the internal commerce cheaply and efficiently; it was but natural, therefore, that they should be considered in the United States. The first canal was in Orange County, New York, and was used for transporting stone as early as 1750. Numerous short canals were constructed in Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts prior to 1810, but the peak of canal building came after this date. The first lock used in

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Canal Prosperity and Desuetude.

Canal Prosperity and Desuetude.

—Until the greater advantages of railway travel and traffic lessened the usefulness of the canals, they did a thriving business. As has already been noted with regard to the Erie canal so was it with the others. [50] In the whole United States there was a “grand total of 4,468 miles [51] of canals, costing approximately $214,141,802.” Not all these were remunerative. To the end of 1872 the New York Canals had only averaged a profit of 3.2 per cent, while the Erie Canal proper paid but 4 per cent

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Ship Canals.

Ship Canals.

—Reports show the tonnage of the Erie Canal to have continually decreased from 2,031,735 tons in 1911 to 667,374 tons in 1918. The total tonnage of all the New York state canals shows a like decrease from 3,097,068 tons in 1911 to 1,159,270 tons in 1918. Notwithstanding such records there are those who firmly believe canal transportation will again take an upward trend with better terminal facilities and possibly electric propulsion. There is one class of canals that seems to have held its own,

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The Panama Canal.

The Panama Canal.

—All present-day readers are familiar with the greatest of all ship canals, the Panama Canal, constructed by the Government at a cost of approximately $400,000,000, and open to the ships of the world. It will be remembered that a canal across the isthmus had been dreamed of practically ever since Balboa passed over and for the first time a white man saw the Pacific from the west coast of America. With the opening of the Oregon territory there was increased interest in such a canal. With the disc

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French Participation.

French Participation.

—After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 by the French an organization of French scientists made a careful study of the various routes across the Isthmus and decided the one at Panama to be the most feasible. As a result, in 1875, De Lesseps, the engineer of the Suez Canal, began a careful survey of that route and in 1878, Lucien Bonaparte Wyse, of the French Navy, secured from the United States of Colombia (which had succeeded New Granada) a concession giving a company to be organized by hi

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River Transportation.

River Transportation.

—As has already been stated streams and rivers were early adopted as a means for transportation. Birch-bark and dug-out canoes, flat-boats and keel-boats, with and without sails, and rafts were extensively used. For small boats paddles and oars furnished the means of navigation, while several pairs of oars were utilized on the larger boats. In shallow water poling was much in vogue. Two men by pushing poles against the bottom of the stream from opposite sides of a small boat could easily propel

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The Government’s Attitude Toward River Improvement.

The Government’s Attitude Toward River Improvement.

—The individual states had been encouraging turnpikes, canals, and other interior improvements by subscribing and underwriting stock in private companies authorized to build and operate the improvements. Frequently monopolies were granted to operating companies. [78] States were jealous of each other and hesitated to appropriate money for improvements which would inure to the benefit of another state, and frequently an improvement in one state was worthless unless joining improvements could be m

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Arthur, President Chester A. , Veto of river and harbor bill, Richardson’s “Messages and Papers,” VIII, pp. 120-122. Barnard, Charles , “Inland Navigation of the United States,” The Century Magazine , Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 353-372. Calhoun, John C. , “Works of.” Edited by Richard K. Cralle, 6 volumes, 1853-1855. Vol. II, p. 190. D. Appleton &amp; Company, New York. Canals.—“Report of the Committee on Roads and Canals (of the House of Representatives) in reply to memorials of Chesapeake &amp;

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Pacific Roads.

Pacific Roads.

—The most gigantic land grants made by the Government were for the benefit of the trans-continental or Pacific roads. The idea of a transcontinental railroad has been traced back practically to the beginning of railroad building in the United States. [103] During the ’fifties the debates in Congress waxed strong. Should the states’ sovereignty idea prevail and federal aid be first granted to the states and dealt out by them to the builders as had been done with the Illinois Central and numerous

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Construction of Pacific Roads.

Construction of Pacific Roads.

—It would be interesting to take up in detail the work of constructing these roads, but space will not permit. Nothing can be said of the intense interest throughout the United States; of the romance and adventure of penetrating 1700 miles of wilderness and desert with hostile Indians ready at any time to attack; with worse than hostile Indians in the rough-necks, gamblers, and prostitutes who followed the camps; of the magnitude of the work employing 2000 graders to go first, 1500 wood choppers

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The Crédit Mobilier.

The Crédit Mobilier.

—Perhaps the most widely noticed scandal connected with the railroads was the scheme known as the Crédit Mobilier. This was made much of by the Grange and other anti-monopoly movements which reached their height in the ’seventies. Charges having been made that many congressmen had been bribed by an organization known as the Crédit Mobilier, a Congressional investigation was made, [108] Thomas Durant, vice president, and other leading stockholders of the Union Pacific Railroad, secured a controll

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Railroad Consolidation.

Railroad Consolidation.

—It has been shown that at the beginning railroad building consisted of short stretches from town to town, or from the end of one water communication to the beginning of another. It was but reasonable that these would join for the purpose of through traffic. The result was also better efficiency as the equipment could be used to better advantage; the terminal costs were reduced as there were not so many of them; and, what may have been a leading cause, the control, and perhaps prevention, of com

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Mechanical Development.

Mechanical Development.

—There is not space to follow in detail the mechanical development of railroads. The rail, for instance, was at first a mere plank placed in the cart track to prevent rutting; this evolved into a rail of timber about 4 x 6 inches held in proper position by cross-ties not to be considered as sleepers or supports especially. On top of the rail was later placed a strap iron. Since this strap iron under the wheel loads curled up, thicker plates began to be used. Then cast-iron rails some 4 or 5 feet

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The Evolution of the Sleeping Car.

The Evolution of the Sleeping Car.

—Mr. Husband has made a very interesting book of the story of the Pullman car and its evolution [116] in which he traces with much detail, step by step, the improvements from 1836, when the first sleeping car was offered to the traveling public, to the most modern parlor car now in use. The discomfort and inconvenience of travelers by rail was so much greater than that by canal that only the greater speed of the former caused it to forge ahead of the latter. As the mileage of the roads increased

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Street Car Service.

Street Car Service.

—Now that more than one half the population of the United States live in cities makes the matter of local transportation of at least passing interest. Railroads were at first tram cars and many of them were built through the city streets, it was easy, therefore, to make of them street cars caring for such local traffic as desired to take advantage of them. They became a popular means of local transportation in the decade 1850-60. As the demand became greater the one-horse car gave way to the two

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Electric Traction.

Electric Traction.

—There are reports of attempts to obtain magnetic traction by the use of batteries, but not until the electric dynamo and motor had become practical working machines was anything like a successful working electrically propelled car developed. The ordinary method is to generate the electricity at a central station, carry it along the track by means of a wire, from which it is taken by a trolley or some form of conductor to a motor on the car completing the circuit through the track and ground. Su

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Brown, William H. , “History of the First Locomotive in America.” D. Appleton &amp; Co., New York, 1871. Burch, Edward P. , “Electric Traction for Railway Trains,” Chap. I (Historical). McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1911. Callender, Guy S. , “The Economic History of the United States,” Chapter VIII, “Transportation,” Ginn &amp; Co., New York. Census, U. S. Eleventh (1890) “Transportation on Land.” Census Bureau, U. S. Special Report (1902) “Streets and Electric Railways.” Davis, John P

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The Influence of the Bicycle on Roads.

The Influence of the Bicycle on Roads.

—Road construction remained in a lackadaisical state with here and there a spurt, with now and then an intelligent supervisor who appreciated the need of better wagon roads, until the coming of the bicycle. That machine may be considered a descendant of the old celeripede, which consisted of two wheels connected by a horizontal bar on which the rider sat and propelled himself by pushing with his feet alternately on the ground, through the velocipede, which had the front wheel pivoted to the fram

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Office of Public Roads Inquiry.

Office of Public Roads Inquiry.

—A very few lines of the Congressional Record serves to introduce the beginning of a great instrumentality for good roads in America. On January 26, 1893, Representative Deborow introduced a resolution in the House of Representatives, “instructing the committee on agriculture to incorporate in the agricultural appropriation the sum of $15,000 to be expended for the purpose of making investigations for a better system of roads.” [134] On the same day Representative Lewis presented a similar resol

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Object-Lesson Roads.

Object-Lesson Roads.

—The Office of Public Roads inquiry beginning, as has been shown, very simply, has by devoted service and extreme economy been able to do a remarkable amount of good for the public highways of this country. The men at its head and employed by it deserve much praise. Their salaries were small, yet they worked with missionary zeal. They were able to coöperate with scientific and professional organizations, such as the American Society for Testing Materials, The American Society of Civil Engineers,

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Rural Free Delivery.

Rural Free Delivery.

—A brief mention of this agency for better roads should not be omitted. Postmaster-General Wanamaker, in 1890, recommended the extension of free delivery to villages of less than 10,000 population and he inaugurated an experimental “village delivery.” After an existence of about two years this was ordered discontinued. However, free delivery on a broader basis was demanded by State Granges of the Patrons of Husbandry and other farmers. Congress made small appropriations for rural free delivery,

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State Aid.

State Aid.

—While the bicyclist and voluntary road organizations were creating sentiment favorable to improved highways, the states were not idle. It will not be possible to follow the progress in each of the states, but since some form of state aid has been adopted by all of them the development of that idea will be sketched. By state aid is meant a plan whereby a part of the expense of constructing roads is borne by the state and a part by the locality in which the road lies. New Jersey, [150] like many

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Salient Features of the State Aid Law.

Salient Features of the State Aid Law.

—The essential points of the law are set forth in the following extract being the preamble and parts of the seventh and fourth sections: An Act to provide for the more permanent improvement of the public roads of this State. Whereas public roads in this State have heretofore been built and maintained solely at the expense of the respective townships in which they are located; and Whereas such roads are for the convenience of the citizens of the counties in which they are located, and of the enti

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Federal Aid.

Federal Aid.

—The real road building age in the United States was ushered in by the enactment of the law providing that “the Secretary of Agriculture shall on behalf of the United States in certain cases aid the States in the construction and maintenance of rural post roads.” From the time Representative Brownlow startled the country in 1904 by introducing a bill to appropriate $24,000,000 for road building, not a session of Congress passed without several such bills being introduced. Most of these took the

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Anderson, Andrew P. , “Highways,” American Year Book , 1918, pp. 317-321; 1919, pp. 308-311. D. Appleton &amp; Company, New York. “Bonds for Highway Improvement,” Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 136, U. S. Dept of Agr. Boston Transcript , Letter by a foreign visitor giving her opinion of American Roads. Aug. 10, 1892. Burrough, Edward , “State Aid to Road Building in New Jersey,” Office of Public Road Inquiry Bulletin No. 9, 1894. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington. Chatburn, George R. , “

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Legitimate Fields of Transportation Agencies.

Legitimate Fields of Transportation Agencies.

—Agreeing, then, that the present systems of transportation should not be put out of business by less efficient ones, what seems to be the most feasible interrelations that will allow all of them to live and let live? There seems to be no doubt but what the railroads can and do transport large quantities long distances quicker, better, and more efficiently than can be done on the highways. Highways may be considered as feeders of the railways. With good roads the zone from which the railway can

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Intra City Traffic.

Intra City Traffic.

—Mr. J. C. Thirlwall, of the railway and tractive engineering department of the General Electric Company ( General Electric Review , Vol. XXIV, pp. 974-985), discussing the fields of the rail car, trolley bus and gasoline bus, tabulates the respective costs of these types on a comparative basis for a variety of conditions. In general the calculations indicate that: ( a ) Where rush hour headways of 3 min. or less are required with safety cars, rail cars are the most economical and up to 6 min. h

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Length of Haul for Economical Trucking.

Length of Haul for Economical Trucking.

—The railroads would not be alone in the benefits due to better roads. Truck lines could be established to care for freight and passenger traffic between farm and station. Here the truck and railroads would coöperate, there would be no competition, for each would be performing a function incapable (or unprofitable) of performance by the other; the net result would be a benefit to the entire community. But most transport lines that are being established come into actual competition with existing

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Short-Haul Roads Reduce Express Rates.

Short-Haul Roads Reduce Express Rates.

—The Boston &amp; Maine Railroad is reducing express rates between Boston and towns within a radius of 50 miles in an effort to win back short-haul traffic lost to motor trucks. [163] The average reduction is given as about 40 per cent on less than carload lots. The old rail service rate between Lynn and Boston was $1.50 per ton, 7 1 ⁄ 2 cents per hundred, with a minimum loading of 20,000 pounds per car, while the truck service charge is about $3 per ton, yet it is estimated that 80 to 90 pe

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Avoiding Waste.

Avoiding Waste.

—Such methods of cheapening and bettering railroad transportation together with a lowering of rates generally to a point that the traffic can bear, and the adoption of managerial methods that will lessen avoidable wastes, which the railroad unions estimate at one billion dollars per year, [165] may eventuate in a rehabilitation and stabilization of the railway industry. The taking over by motor trucks of short-haul freight and passenger traffic, even though it cause the discontinuation of unprof

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Carve Out New Fields of Usefulness.

Carve Out New Fields of Usefulness.

—It is quite likely that the newer systems of transportation, by inter-urban electric railways, by automobile and motor-truck, and by air-plane and dirigible, will all carve out for themselves new grooves of usefulness, thus opening up for labor and capital new fields of endeavor. The telephone did not, as many believed it would, replace the telegraph; neither, yet, has “wireless” put “wires” out of use. The telephone, rural free delivery of mail, and the automobile have already put new life int

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on, Published by order of Congress, 1922, Washington, D. C. Babson, Roger W. , “Weekly Comment” of September 30, 1922, Syndicated. Banham, W. J. L. , “Motor Truck and Railroad Freighting,” Address delivered at Highway Transport Conference, 1920, published as a bulletin by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. Blanchard, Harold F. , “Is the Day of the $150 Car in Sight,” Popular Science Monthly , January, 1923, p. 26. Brosseau, A.

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Business Passenger Traffic.

Business Passenger Traffic.

—All machines that haul passengers for hire, that are used as a means of performing, promoting, or extending business relations, while so used, may be rightly considered business machines and the traffic business traffic. The physician who finds that he can quadruple the number of his daily calls; the traveling salesman who can double the territory covered and do it much more efficiently; the business or professional man, of whatever kind, who uses his automobile in going from one place to anoth

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Pleasure Passenger Traffic.

Pleasure Passenger Traffic.

—Vast and important as may have become the business passenger motor traffic, purely pleasure travel by automobile probably exceeds it. Of the more than ten million motor cars licensed in the United States perhaps 80 per cent of them were purchased not for their use in the business of the owner, although that might have been the final excuse that consummated the deal, but for the pleasure the purchaser and his family would get from owning a car. The great car industry which has sprung up like a m

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Freight Traffic.

Freight Traffic.

—When it comes to freight traffic cost and time will be the principal factors to determine the type of performance. The element of pleasure is here eliminated and only cold economical features remain. Already horse trucking is rapidly disappearing as it seems to be able to compete with the motor only where many stops are to be made. In large cities motor trucks are utilized to haul packages to certain districts at considerable distances from the store, where they are turned over to small wagons

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Traffic between Towns.

Traffic between Towns.

—Wherever the roads are dependable and passable at all seasons of the year truck and bus lines have sprung up to ply regularly between the towns. The length of haul most profitable seems to be that over which the motor can make the round trip each day and have sufficient time at terminals for loading and unloading. Forty to 50 miles for trucks and 60 to 65 miles for buses seem to be negotiable and double these distances are proving to be practicable. In many of the states such enterprises have b

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Motor Bus Traffic.

Motor Bus Traffic.

—Suburban and interurban motor bus passenger service is growing rapidly. Buses accommodating as high as sixty persons are being used on the haul where the roads are well paved, but twenty to thirty seems more popular. At present these buses seem to be well patronized, usually bringing their passengers to the larger city in time for business or shopping and returning them home in the afternoon or evening. The rates of fare for bus travel are about the same as those for steam car travel, or approx

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To and from the Farm.

To and from the Farm.

—Farm trucking seems to be firmly established and very much if not all farm hauling will eventually be done by automobiles. Very many farmers now own their own trucks and the number is constantly being increased. Glowing statements by government officials, reports of investigational committees, and propaganda by manufacturers and dealers have worked up the farmers’ desire for trucks. A congressional joint committee on agricultural inquiry has recently stated that, No single development since the

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Terminal Facilities.

Terminal Facilities.

—Railways have found it advantageous to spend enormous sums of money upon terminal facilities. Depots and warehouses, garages and repair shops will be necessary if truck lines are to prove efficient and successful. It would be quite feasible and profitable for all the truck lines leading from a city to have a union or common terminal station. Portland, Oregon, has such a station owned by a corporation composed of bus lines that operate from there to every city of any importance within a radius o

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The Social Aspect of Motor Transportation.

The Social Aspect of Motor Transportation.

—The change from poor roads and horse-drawn vehicles to good roads and motorized vehicles has produced in society changes quite as radical. These changes are not entirely separate from economic changes and one cannot always say that this particular thing or that particular thing is due to the automobile alone because every activity in life has its effect on every other activity. As the waves upon a pond circling about the point of shock come into contact with other waves their effect is enhanced

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Consolidation of Rural Schools.

Consolidation of Rural Schools.

—The people of the United States have been justly proud of her public schools. No one has ever considered them to be perfect, but the influence exerted upon the minds of the growing children has been wholesome. The very life of a republic depends upon an educated citizenry. With thorough education along right lines there is no reason why the nation should not live forever. To obtain such an education as is commensurate with right living and with the upbuilding and maintenance of our government a

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Changing Concepts of the Public Schools.

Changing Concepts of the Public Schools.

—Schools have continually had to change with changing society. During the pioneer period, and that extended through many years from the first settlements along the coasts, and the occupation of the great fertile areas of the mid-west to recent efforts to subdue the semi-desert and desert regions of the farther west, the schools taught for a few months only a little reading, writing, and arithmetic. The farm and home life supplemented this with manual labor and the attainment of skill in making a

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Rural Mail Delivery.

Rural Mail Delivery.

—The development of the Rural Mail Delivery and its relation to the better roads movement has been touched upon in Chapter V . It will only be necessary to say here that the psychological effect of a daily mail upon the inhabitants of the rural districts has been most remarkable. Through its means these people are no longer isolated, they know daily what is transpiring in the world; they are thinking of the great questions of finance, politics, and what not, at the same time as their fellows in

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The Automobile and Health.

The Automobile and Health.

—“Health is something more than strength, it is a universally good condition,” according to Munger. The automobile, by inducing people to get more into the open air, may be considered to be a prophylactic, and something that will bring them into that universally good condition. The forgetting of business, the obliteration of household cares, the unstringing of high-tensioned nerves by a swift run like a swallow in its flight over smooth and undulating roads brings rest with relaxation, and cure

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The Automobile and Crime.

The Automobile and Crime.

—But not always have the changes produced by automobiles been in the interest of better living. Criminals and those who verge upon criminality have been quick to employ the superior advantages of modern means of rapid transit to assist them in their nefarious work. Automobile theft has taken the place of horse thievery, and automobiles are used daily as a means of getting to and getting away from the place of the crime. Trucks are utilized to haul the loot. Since the adoption of prohibition laws

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Vandalism.

Vandalism.

—Complaints are made that those who drive or walk to the country are often guilty of vandalism and disregard for the rights of property. Note this editorial utterance in the Saturday Evening Post of June 17, 1922: [172] On Sunday one dare not leave one’s farm or country place unwatched or unprotected for a moment. The whole countryside is aswarm with Nature lovers from the near by city. First come the makers of forbidden beverages, trooping across fields and lawns, picking the once despised dand

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Conclusion.

Conclusion.

—The world cannot now get along without the motor car. What was a luxury yesterday has become a necessity to-day. Automotive transportation is carving out a path for itself. While it perhaps will take much from the older forms of transportation it can never hope to supplant them. The final result will come only after the world has had opportunity through competitive experience to determine which is most economical in time and money and which is most desirable and comfortable from a personal or a

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Addendum.

Addendum.

—Since the above was written President Harding has issued the annual legislative message to Congress (December 8, 1922), in which he discusses at some length the transportation problem in the United States. Among other things he says: Manifestly, we have need to begin on plans to coördinate all transportation facilities. We should more effectively connect up our rail lines with our carriers by sea. We ought to reap some benefit from the hundreds of millions expended on inland waterways, proving

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on, Part III deals with Transportation, Washington, D. C., 1922. Alden, H. W. , “Automotive Obligations Toward Highway Development,” Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers , Vol. VIII, pp. 161-162, 426-432. Automotive Industries. —“Automobile Service Stations,” Vol. XLVII, pp. 174-175; “Automobiles in Postal Service,” 178-179; “Cost of Operation of Bus Lines,” 482-483; “Motor Trucks on the Farm,” 315; “Railroad Officials Recognize Truck as

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Motor Transport Efficiency Outline.

Motor Transport Efficiency Outline.

—At this point it would be well for the road planner to consult an excellent paper by M. C. Horine and his efficiency chart which is substantially as follows: [175]...

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The Highway System Unit.

The Highway System Unit.

—Ordinarily the units will be the same as the political divisions, that is, national, state, or local. A national system would include the whole United States and will comprise trunk lines paralleling each other across the country east and west and north and south, considering, of course, ruling points, with a few branch lines of importance. The total number of miles of such highways should probably never exceed 2 per cent of the total mileage in the United States, or about 50,000 miles. A natio

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State System.

State System.

—The benefits to be derived from and the arguments for a national system of roads apply with equal force to a state system. In fact it may be better to avoid the two extremes of one consolidated central control for the whole country and a very highly dispersed decentralized local control. The state seems to be a sufficiently large unit to do good work and sufficiently small to be approachable. Competition with other states may bring out developments which under a single central control would nev

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The Procedure of Laying out a Road System.

The Procedure of Laying out a Road System.

—To fix the mind definitely suppose it to be a state road system that is to be laid out. It is generally conceded that the planning should be done by an unprejudiced commission headed by an engineer of wide experience, one who is fair but will show no favoritism. The first question, after deciding to make a layout and who shall make it, is what shall be the determining factor of the lay-out. Shall it be primarily a farm to market system, primarily a commercial system, or primarily a recreational

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Financial Considerations.

Financial Considerations.

—While little has been said of financial considerations they are, of course, of prime importance. The amount of money as a whole that may be expended is usually limited by the taxes voted or the bonds issued. The planner must cut the garment according to the cloth. He must know the approximate unit costs of the roads that will be constructed as well as the mileage of the several types. To know this he must estimate the amount of traffic that will pass over the road, he should know also about wha

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Traffic Census.

Traffic Census.

—An important consideration in the selection of a road alignment, of its grades, its width, and of the type of its foundations and surfacing, is the amount and the character of the traffic which will pass over the roadway after it is built. The best way to get a reasonable estimate of this is to take a traffic census. This is to be used as a basis and to it should be added an estimate of the increase in traffic which the improvement itself will produce by drawing from parallel and contributing l

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Methods of Taking Traffic Censuses.

Methods of Taking Traffic Censuses.

—It is well known that the traffic on any road is not constant. A count, then, made on a single day could not be applied for an entire year. Counting every day for the year would, of course, give a correct total, but that is impracticable. It is customary, therefore, to take the count on a limited number of days and consider their average to be the average for the year. There seems to be a seasonal variation in traffic and a weekly variation. The season variation in crops affects all sorts of co

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Classification of Traffic.

Classification of Traffic.

—The object of a classification is to obtain: ( a ) the maximum loads and average number of heavy loads per day. ( b ) The lighter loads, whether horse drawn or motor driven, iron, solid rubber or pneumatic tire, trailers, traction engines, animals, harnessed and unharnessed, and any other load which might affect the wear of the roadway. ( c ) Any other interesting data regarding the traffic, such as, local or through, cars belonging within or without the state or county, camping parties, and so

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Destructive Factors.

Destructive Factors.

—From the above it appears that there is a general opinion that there should be some common measure for the destructive effect of vehicles upon road surfaces. As yet no unanimity of opinion has crystallized. While density of traffic influences the surface wear of the road crust—considerably in the case of earth and gravel, less for macadam and asphalt, and still less for brick and concrete—the actual weight of the wheel load seems to have a much greater destructive effect. The impact due to spee

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Other Methods of Estimating Amount of Traffic.

Other Methods of Estimating Amount of Traffic.

—The amount of road traffic may be roughly estimated from the area served by the highway. Upon a map is outlined the tributary territory and its area measured by any one of several means. The area may be divided into small squares of known size and the number of squares counted; it may be divided into strips and the length of the strips measured with a scale and thence the area computed, or a planimeter may be used. Having found the area the unit tonnage is estimated from a knowledge of the char

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The Selection of a Suitable Type of Road.

The Selection of a Suitable Type of Road.

—The highway plan should, if it has been carefully and scientifically made specify the type of roadway as well as the location of the highway. However, when the improvement is to be paid for by a special tax on the abutting land, it is customary to allow the taxpayers to have something to say about the type. Road engineers often object to this as being unscientific and unsound, on the theory that the layman is ignorant of the properties and behavior of road materials and that only an expert can

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Materials and Design.

Materials and Design.

—The physical properties of materials—their tensile, compressive, and shearing strengths, their elasticity, brittleness, etc.—while important elements in the durability of pavements, the design of the pavement, its thickness, the proportioning and mixing of parts, the laying, as well as the subgrade and its treatment are all elements that count very much also. No matter how good a material it can easily be spoiled in the handling. Some materials like vitrified brick and stone will last indefinit

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Resistance Due to Grade.

Resistance Due to Grade.

—The resistance due to grade is just as marked as that due to surface. The work necessary to draw a load up an inclined plane is the same as that of drawing on a level along the base of the plane and lifting it directly up to the height of the plane. A mathematical analysis [182] based upon this fact leads to the formulas: For a horse-drawn load, L = t - g μ + g H . (1) For a tractor, L = P μ + g - T . (2) For an automobile or truck, L = P μ + g , (3) Equation (3) indicates that the load, incl

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Slipperiness.

Slipperiness.

—Road surfaces which become slippery not only decrease the tractive effort of horses and motors but are very dangerous also. Non-slipperiness ought then to be given weight in the selection of the type of roadway. Observations in London in 1873 by Heywood on slipperiness of pavements indicated granite-block most slippery, then asphalt and wood-block. Greene, in 1885, analyzing a series of observations made in the principal cities of the United States, gave the order of slipperiness as wood-block,

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Sanitariness.

Sanitariness.

—The sanitariness of a road is the measure of the effect it has on the health of its users and the dwellers along its side. A dusty road is ordinarily an unsanitary one because of the germs of disease carried on the dust particles and which may be widely spread by the wind. An earth or gravel road when not dry or dusty is a sanitary road. A concrete or asphalt pavement when clean is very sanitary, but because dirt and debris brought upon it soon becomes ground into dust may become more unsanitar

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Noisiness.

Noisiness.

—Noisiness is a real source of disease, especially mental disorders. The less noisy types of pavement are usually laid in front of hospitals....

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Acceptability.

Acceptability.

—The acceptability of a roadway depends in addition to the things mentioned on its looks, appearance, esthetics; on the degree of heat and light which it reflects; upon its springiness and comfortableness to travel over as well as its easiness upon horses’ feet and rubber tires. © Underwood and Underwood CROWNING A CALIFORNIA DIRT ROAD WITH TRACTOR DRAWN GRADER...

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Some Types of Roads and Their Qualities.

Some Types of Roads and Their Qualities.

— Earth Roads. —The good qualities are: low first cost, not slippery, noiseless, easy on horses’ feet and on rubber tires, comfortable when in first-class condition. The poor qualities are: high tractive resistance, not durable, high cost of maintenance when traffic becomes dense, requiring constant attention to be kept in good condition, difficult to clean, muddy in wet weather, dusty in dry weather, choppy when dust blows away, rut easily, wear down rapidly under heavy traffic especially in wi

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Comparison of Roads.

Comparison of Roads.

—In order to compare the relative merits of different types of roads weights are usually given to the different qualities entering into the roadway that they may be compared with a predetermined ideal. It must be remembered that such tables apply only to the particular road for which they are made out. No two can be exactly alike. Here is one adapted from the author’s work on “Highway Engineering.” [184] Comparative Table of Several Types of Roadway for Some Particular Locality Tilson gives the

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

“American Civil Engineers’ Pocket-Book,” Sec. 15, Art. 4, John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York. “American Highway Engineers’ Handbook,” p. 1360, John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York. American Society of Civil Engineers, Proceedings , 1918, p. 2327. Anderson, Andrew P. , “Modern Road Building and Maintenance.” Hercules Powder Co., Chicago. Automotive Industries , “The Motor Bus Field as a Market for Trucks,” Vol. XLV, pp. 627-628, Sept. 29, 1921; “Weight of Trucks,” May 18, 1922. Blanchard and Drow

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Grain Exchanges.

Grain Exchanges.

—In the grain business there has been developed a great system of selling through commission merchants, that is, the selling agents take commissions on the sales for their remuneration. A limited number of the commission merchants of a particular city organize themselves into incorporated bodies for the purpose of providing themselves with houses and facilities for doing business and establishing rules for the transaction of the same. Such organizations with places of doing business are known as

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Coöperative Marketing.

Coöperative Marketing.

—Coöperative marketing associations and the intermediate dealer, that is a man who buys directly from the producer and resells to other purchasers, are said to have two points of superiority over the commission merchant: ( a ) The care and solicitude of the owner replaces the zeal of the agent; ( b ) by combining the products of many they are able to handle large quantities and thus secure better shipping rates, and take advantage of other benefits of quantity business. The farmer or local deale

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Highway Transportation from Farm to Local Market.

Highway Transportation from Farm to Local Market.

—The table indicates that the highway transportation amounts to about 6 cents per bushel. Had the cost been based on all team hauling it would have been 8 1 ⁄ 2 cents; on truck hauling, 4 1 ⁄ 4 cents. The grand total cost of production would be the Cost of growing; Cost of transportation; Cost of marketing. Taking up only the transportation from the farm to the local market point, the question arises, what, if any, effect would a change in it have on the character and amount of farm production?

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Stock Raising.

Stock Raising.

—Marketing facilities and road transportation is greatly changing the character of stock raising. Not so very many years ago the great western plains were covered with large herds of cattle whose owners and caretakers were known as ranchers. The ranch usually consisted of the owner’s residence, which he also used as an office, sleeping and eating quarters for the cowboys, a corral or two for the horses and possibly cattle during the round-up and branding season, though this latter was usually on

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Shrinkage.

Shrinkage.

—The argument that there is less shrinkage in motor-hauled hogs than in rail-hauled may be as a general rule true, but, according to the Firestone Bulletin, will not net the farmer much, because buyers base the price they are willing to pay on the dressed weight and not the live weight. It is stated that the buyer from long experience is able to estimate with considerable accuracy the weight at which a hog will dress, and that he makes his price offer accordingly. The percentage loss of weight i

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Dairying.

Dairying.

—The use to which the motor truck has been put in other industries is fully as important. Many industries use several hundred trucks in their work. Creameries have already been mentioned. The very fact that trucks make regular trips along designated routes is an invitation to the farmers to do more dairying. If John Jones can draw from $50 to $75 a month from the creamery for a few hours’ work each day, Henry Smith living on the next farm is anxious to do likewise. Many good farmers find it to t

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Poultry.

Poultry.

—We have just mentioned the Nebraska income from milk and cream sold by the farmers. It may be surprising that the sum received from the humble hen is nearly twice as much (given by state authorities as $35,000,000 from the fowls and eggs produced each year). But the only way this can be successful is by quick and adequate markets. Dressed fowls and eggs are highly perishable products and must be put into the cold storage warehouses at the earliest possible moment. The motor car and the rural ex

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Diversified Farming.

Diversified Farming.

—Before leaving the farm it might be well to say that easy marketing makes for diversified farming. All eggs are not put in one basket, and in case of a failure or partial failure in one crop the effect is not felt so much because there are others from which returns will be received. Often drought will injure a wheat crop but later rains will “make” the corn crop; or, earth soaked by winter snows will mature a wheat crop while the corn may, due to a few days of hot dry weather, be a partial fail

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Forestry.

Forestry.

—Realizing that the lumbering methods in vogue in this country since its earliest settlement are most wasteful and are destructive of the future usefulness of the timbered regions the United States Government has set aside as forest reserves several hundred thousand square miles. A forest crop is like any other crop. It must grow from the seed and at maturity be harvested. Those trees that have reached the point in life where years do not add materially to the lumber content are marked for cutti

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Other Uses of the Truck.

Other Uses of the Truck.

—But the use of the truck in the lumbering industries is not limited to logging. About the saw mills it is used for getting the logs to the saw and taking the sawed lumber away. And at yards, all over the country, for taking the lumber from the railroad tracks to the storage piles and for delivering it to customers. Special loading devices save much time. A gantry or other type of crane will pick up and handle an entire load of lumber at one time....

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Amos Log Loader.

Amos Log Loader.

—The Amos log loader is described as an efficient loading machine in which a friction drive takes power directly from the drive shaft of the motor truck and by means of a worm gear transmits it to a long winding shaft, or small diameter drum, which extends the length of the truck bed, being mounted parallel to it just under the bed. Loading chains are attached to this drum either at the ends or middle as the driver wishes. The movement is regulated by means of a lever just over the truck step. B

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In the Yards.

In the Yards.

—After the logs are sawed the lumber is stacked up in yards either at the point of sawing or elsewhere. It must be hauled to the shipment point and from the cars to the yards. Trucks are applicable for all these purposes. When it comes to delivering the lumber to the consumer a wagon known as a dolly is of great assistance for collecting materials to load on the delivery truck. Most retail yards now deliver their lumber by truck even to a distance of 15 or 20 miles. When an order for mixed grade

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Mining.

Mining.

—The building of railway tracks to mines was at one time a very expensive part of a railroad’s business. It required much expert knowledge on the part of the railroad officials to determine whether or not such a road would pay. In fact a great many miles of such tracks have been abandoned and very likely the loss to the railroad has been equal to that of the mining companies. Motor trucking is to a large extent doing away with the enormous track building that formerly went on in the mining commu

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Factory Products.

Factory Products.

—Scarcely a manufacturing industry but that owns motor trucks, some of them running into the hundreds. No doubt these trucks have had their effect on the goods manufactured just as any other machine introduced into the process might do. In some instances goods that were marketed through jobbers are being sold directly to the retailer and sent to them by routings which return to the same customer every day, every two days, twice or once a week, or once a month, or in such regular periods the cust

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Construction.

Construction.

—It will hardly be necessary here to take up more individual cases. The almost universal use of trucks in the handling of materials of construction no doubt has affected the quantity and cost of construction, truly a productive process. Everyone is familiar with one or more of the many devices for loading and unloading, for in this class of haulage these things have reached a very high state of development....

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Other Agencies.

Other Agencies.

—It is not the intention here to claim for the motor car entire credit for the manifold changes in marketing—buying and selling—which have occurred during the past two decades. Many other factors have entered into these changes and the corresponding advancement in the average standard of living. Transportation of all kinds, upon the highways, upon the railways, upon the waters, by telegraph, by telephone, by improvements in the postal service, and by the general increase in knowledge through the

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on Part IV deals with Marketing, Washington, D. C., 1922. American Forestry , “Forest Fires,” Dec., 1920, p. 707. Bohm-Bawerk , “Positive Theory of Capital,” Translated by W. Smart, Books I-II. Macmillan &amp; Co., London, 1891. Boyle, James E. , “Speculation and the Chicago Board of Trade,” Macmillan Company, New York; “The Chicago Board of Trade, What it is and What it Does,” Distributed by the Chicago Board of Trade. Collins, J. H. , “Motor

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Private Financing.

Private Financing.

—A few persons of wealth have built roads as a benefaction to the public. Perhaps one of the most ambitious projects of this sort is the DuPont Road, which is located through the state of Delaware from north to south. The intention of the DuPont family is to make this road eventually one of the finest in the world. It has been very carefully laid out and constructed. Later it is to be widened and beautified. Some $3,000,000 have already been expended, and it is contemplated to spend $1,500,000 m

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Public Financing.

Public Financing.

—Every civic government has its methods for the collection of revenue to pay its necessary expenses. One of the easiest things theoretically to do, then, is to collect by a tax on the property of the district—state, county, township—sufficient money to meet expenses, including the building and maintenance of roads, from the property holders in proportion to their wealth and turn it over to the proper officers for expenditure. When roads were yet simple things, before they had become elaborate an

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Direct Taxes.

Direct Taxes.

—Direct taxes are levied directly upon property or persons. State laws usually prescribe that general property taxes shall be levied uniformly over the assessed values of the district concerned. A poll tax is levied on all persons of a particular age or class, as all able-bodied males between the ages of twenty-one and fifty years. An income tax is levied according to some prescribed rule on the annual incomes of persons and corporations. An income tax is really a tax on business, either present

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Indirect Taxes.

Indirect Taxes.

—Indirect taxes are those not levied upon the various persons or the property of the district, but are placed upon some article of consumption or some article of manufacture, upon imports and exports, or some privilege or pleasure. The government does not look to each individual for its money, but to the seller or manufacturer or importer of the article taxed, or the licensee, or the operator of the theater or other pleasure resort. The amount of the tax is added to the price at which the articl

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Special Taxes.

Special Taxes.

—Special taxes are those levied upon property for a particular improvement that is demanded by public interest. They are not uniform but must be levied in proportion to the benefits accruing to the property from the improvement. This class of taxes is very popular for financing the building of roads and the paving of streets as well as other public construction. The area adjacent to the road or pavement for a certain specified distance back, or possibly, halfway to the next thoroughfare, is asse

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Zone Weights.

Zone Weights.

—To determine the proper zone weights the influence curve is plotted as in figure on page 319. The base line, AB, is divided into as many parts as it is desired to have zones; from the mid-point of each part a perpendicular to the base line is erected to meet the curve, shown in the table, as mid-ordinates. These are each multiplied by 100 and divided by the longest, in the case of five zones, 94.85, to get them into percentages of the whole. These are now adjusted to near numbers for easy multi

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To Calculate the Frontage.

To Calculate the Frontage.

—As has already been stated, in some states in order to initiate a road improvement to be paid for by special assessment a petition for the same signed by the owners of a majority of the frontage is necessary. To determine the frontage for this petition general rules are laid down by proper authority or laws enacted, stating the necessary procedure and the weights allowed for calculating frontage based upon distance from the roadway to be improved. In one state the land up to a distance of 2 mil

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Procedure with Unequal Zones or Irregular Lots.

Procedure with Unequal Zones or Irregular Lots.

—Where the zones are not equal in area or the property lines do not intersect the roadway at right angles or the lots are irregular in shape, the method of procedure is not quite so simple, although the principle is the same. While it is customary to make the zones of uniform width this is not absolutely necessary. Likewise the ratio of weights vary with different states and cities. One city uses 33 1 ⁄ 3 , 20, 16 2 ⁄ 3 , 10, 10, 10 for the weights in its six zones; another uses 33 1 ⁄ 3 , 25, 1

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Second Method of Apportioning Assessments.

Second Method of Apportioning Assessments.

—A second method based upon a different definition has something in its favor. If the front-foot is defined as a lot 1 foot wide measured in the direction of the street extending directly back through all the zones to the limit of the assessed area it will have a weighed area of W 1 z 1 + W 2 z 2 + W 3 z 3 ... and so on, where W 1 represents the weight of the zone, whose width is z 1 , and W 2 the weight of the zone, width z 2 , etc. If z 1 = z 2 = z 3 ... etc., as is usually the case the weight

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Rule for Assessment.

Rule for Assessment.

—To get the assessment for any particular lot divide the total cost of the improvement by the total number of front-feet in the district and multiply the quotient by the number of front-feet in the lot. First Method Front-Feet = 600 Weighted Area per front Foot = 1,936,000 600 = 3226 2 ⁄ 3 Lot frontage = Weighted area of Lot ÷ 3226 2 ⁄ 3 Second Method Front Feet = 1,936,000 4000 = 484 Frontage of each lot = weighted area of lot ÷ 4000 It should be remembered that the assessment of cost must

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Miscellaneous Sources of Revenue.

Miscellaneous Sources of Revenue.

—A few years ago much was said relative to the right of a city to take a portion of the earnings of public service corporations as compensation to the public for the use of its streets. Many cities granted franchises under such agreements and until the automobile depleted the earnings of street railways and the general costs of manufacturing gas and electricity went up received considerable revenue from these public utility organizations. While in most cities this went into the general fund mone

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Bonds.

Bonds.

—It is not always possible to raise by taxes sufficient money to make public improvements on a pay-as-you-go basis. It would not be economical to attempt to pave one-tenth the width of a street each year. One patch would be worn out before the next is put down. The whole must be done at the same time in order not to be vastly wasteful. And, in order to enjoy the improvement while money is being collected for its payment, the municipality must resort to borrowing. It is also argued that since fut

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Kinds of Bonds.

Kinds of Bonds.

—Bonds are certificates of indebtedness by means of which the repayment of borrowed money may be spread over a series of years. They are classified as Sinking Fund, Annuity and Serial, depending on their manner of payment. Sinking fund bonds are paid as a whole at the end of their term, interest being paid annually, or at some other fixed regular period, upon their face value. The name arises because of the custom of establishing a sinking-fund into which a certain proportion of the debt is to b

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Total Cost by the Three Kinds of Bonds.

Total Cost by the Three Kinds of Bonds.

—The total cost of a loan, as shown by the following table taken from Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture, is generally greatest under the sinking fund plan and least under the serial. The serial, too, is the simplest to compute. Total Cost of a $100,000 Loan for 20 Years Interest Compounded Annually [198] The sinking-fund bonds are made out to run the full period and are paid for from the proceeds of the sinking-fund at the end of the term. Serial and annuity bonds are made to mature

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The Term of Bonds.

The Term of Bonds.

—Several states and some of the large cities have issued bonds for road improvements for long series of years. This has met considerable opposition on the ground that the bonds should not run longer than the life of the improvement, otherwise there may be another series of bonds lapping upon the first, and perhaps a second and third upon these. The arguments in favor of the long terms are that some parts, at least, of the improvement will be permanent, that reconstruction will cost less than ori

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Stocks and Bonds.

Stocks and Bonds.

—Railways, interurban trolley lines, street-car lines, and toll roads have been financed largely by stock subscriptions. Public roads, being without a revenue-producing power, cannot be financed in this manner, except perhaps in exceptional cases where a few persons are willing to donate their money or are building for private use but are willing to share the same with the public. Large bridges may occasionally be built in this manner, the stockholders exacting toll for passage in order to get a

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National and State Aid.

National and State Aid.

—The history of National and State Aid in the United States has been treated quite fully in Chapter V . It will not be necessary to repeat that here. Suffice to say that with possibly a few exceptions all the states in the Union now have some form of state aid—money, engineering advice, testing materials, convict labor, etc.; also the territories of Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippine Islands, and Porto Rico, or else the governments of these divisions directly take charge of the construction of a par

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Federal Aid.

Federal Aid.

—The Federal Aid road act, approved July 11, 1916, appropriated “out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1917, the sum of $5,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918, the sum of $10,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1919, the sum of $15,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1920, the sum of $20,000,000; and for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1921, the sum of $25,000,000.” In addition there was appropriated $10,

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State Aid.

State Aid.

—The machinery of paying state money to finance local roads throughout the counties varies greatly with the different states. For example half may come from Federal Aid, half the remainder from State Aid, and half the remainder from County Aid, leaving only a very small amount for the local abutting property. In other states a large part falls on the abutting property. It would seem as though through main traveled roads should be largely financed by nation and state while local marketing roads w

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Present State of Federal Aid.

Present State of Federal Aid.

—The Bureau of Public Roads gives out the information that 11,930 miles of road have been constructed during the year 1921 by the States in conjunction with Federal Aid, at a total cost of $231,963,682, toward which the government allotted $94,057,089. There were under way during the year 31,228 miles, which was about one-half the road work carried on in the United States during the year. It is safe to assume, then, that through the stimulus of Government Aid, direct and indirect, more than 20,0

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Matching Federal Aid Dollars.

Matching Federal Aid Dollars.

—The main argument that brought the Federal Aid law into being was the need of farm to market roads and the fact that in the past the expense for building and maintaining roads fell most heavily upon the farmer. In an excellent report made by Senator Bankhead (Senate Report 250, 64th Congress, 1st Session) for the Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads, the statement is made that “it is probably conservative to say that at least 75 per cent of the money raised for road purposes” at that time,

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Financing Highway Transportation.

Financing Highway Transportation.

—There are at least three methods of financing highway transportation: (1) Individual; (2) Partnership; and (3) Corporation. —The individual method may be divided into two classes: (1) Those that are a part of auxiliary to or accessory to other business, and (2) those that make up or compose the business itself. The highway transport lines that are auxiliary to other business may be illustrated by the delivery truck of the grocer, the trucks for hauling to and from the depots of large department

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Blanchard, A. H. , “Elements of Highway Engineering,” Chapter II, John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York. Blanchard, A. H. and Drowne, H. B. , “Text-book on Highway Engineering,” Chap. XXVII, John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York. Bradt, S. E. , “Financing Permanent Roads,” Proceedings National Conference on Concrete Road Building, 1914, p. 26, Chicago. Chatburn, G. R. , “Highway Engineering,” pp. 335 et seq. John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York. “Financing and Bonding Highway Work,” Proceedings Am. S

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The Driver.

The Driver.

—No matter how careful a driver may be there will be accidents, but the greatest number occur with drivers who may be classified as: (1) Mentally or physically unfit, (2) Ignorant, (3) Indifferent, (4) Reckless by nature. The unfitness may be caused by sickness, acute or chronic, business worry, overwork, loss of sleep, intoxication, the undevelopment of youth or the feebleness of old age. Men of ordinarily good judgment have become nervous and lost their heads in times of crises. The good drive

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Driving and Operating.

Driving and Operating.

—Mention has already been made of reckless driving. Speeding might be looked upon at times as reckless, at other times not, although it at all times is more or less dangerous, for there is always a chance that some part of the mechanism might suddenly go wrong, that another machine may come in from a side road, or that there may be an unseen bad place in the road. Reckless and fast driving together are almost sure, sooner or later, to lead to accident and perhaps loss of life. The Maryland State

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Horns.

Horns.

—Every car is supposed to be equipped with a good horn and it should be used with caution when necessary but never when unnecessary or so often as to become a nuisance. Horns should be regulated by law in just the same manner as lights. The standard horn is one which honks, not one which whistles or screeches. The siren is almost universally the property of fire-fighting motors and many cities reserve its use to the fire departments, making it a misdemeanor for any one else to use it. Screeching

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Stopping Cars on Grades, Streets, etc.

Stopping Cars on Grades, Streets, etc.

—The stopping of machines on grades without thoroughly braking them or blocking the wheels, or leaving them without wheels blocked on ferries may be and has been productive of accidents. September 3, 1922, the papers reported that a taxi which had been left on the brink at Niagara Falls and whose brakes failed to hold, had carried a woman passenger over the cliff to her death. Trucks, delivery wagons, ice-wagons, etc., frequently stop back of the line of parked automobiles in the street restrict

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Backing.

Backing.

—Mr. L. A. Held, adjuster for the American Railway Express Company, writing in the Express Messenger of July, 1922, says: In those claims presented for damage arising out of accidents caused by our vehicles backing, settlement in most every case is necessary as there is not the slightest chance of successfully defending an action for damages resulting from such an accident. The handling of an automobile while in reverse calls for the greatest care and continual vigilance. It is not sufficient to

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Other Forms of Carelessness.

Other Forms of Carelessness.

—Mr. Held also speaks of claims presented because drivers cut in ahead of street cars and were caught, demolishing the truck and injuring the street car and some of its passengers. Also, he continues, “there are a fair proportion of accidents from vehicles being turned to and from the car tracks. The driver should always determine whether the way is clear before diverting the course of his vehicle.” There are many other forms of careless or reckless driving that might be mentioned, such as, driv

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The Car.

The Car.

—The car itself may be the cause of accidents. Faulty design may result in the breaking of essential parts when the car is going at a rapid gait. It must be said to the credit of modern design and manufacture that while many parts break, few of those that may cause the car to turn turtle or otherwise injure the passengers are found in the number. It is remarkable that they are so few....

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Skidding.

Skidding.

—Failure to use wheel anti-skid chains on a slippery road or pavement is a fertile source of danger. Skidding may break a wheel or cause a collision with another car, or the car itself may slide off an embankment into the ditch. Sometimes, too, cars skid on loose gravel, or clods of earth, or even on slightly rough roads where a sufficient contact between wheel and ground is not obtained for a good grip....

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The Brake.

The Brake.

—Perhaps the most serious danger in the car mechanism is the brake. Mr. Harold F. Blanchard writing in Motor (New York), argues that more than half, probably as much as 90 per cent of all motor accidents may be eliminated by making the stopping ability of motor vehicles a maximum instead of 25 to 50 per cent, as is now the rule. He would have brakes put on all four wheels and claims thereby the braking power of the machine can be more than doubled. He further maintains that the braking power of

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Flexibility.

Flexibility.

—While the brakes are most useful in the prevention of accidents, it frequently happens that a quick pick-up is also important. In crossing the street ahead of a car coming at right angles, for instance, there may be no time to stop, no chance to turn, the only thing that can be done is to “give her gas” and shoot ahead at full speed. A flexible engine with ability to change quickly from fast to slow and from slow to fast velocities will in the hands of an expert driver prevent many an accident.

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Steering and Turning Ability.

Steering and Turning Ability.

—It has been mentioned several times that steering is a matter of importance in the prevention of accidents. Designing engineers should, therefore, take that into account. It was formerly thought that turning ability is a function of the length of wheel base, but there are other things to be taken into account and some late designs with reasonably long wheel bases are able to turn in half the radius that was required for some of the older designs with shorter wheel bases....

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Lights.

Lights.

—The lights whether on your car or another car are often serious sources of danger. If there is not enough illumination one is always liable to get off the roadway. If there is a large amount of illumination improperly controlled the glare is quite as dangerous to approaching vehicles. State regulations usually require two white lights ahead and one red light behind. The two-light regulation is wise. When one approaches a single lighted machine he can not tell which of the two lights is out, or

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Unlighted Vehicles.

Unlighted Vehicles.

—Unlighted, horse-drawn vehicles, bicycles, and animals driven or walking in the street frequently give the automobile driver palpitation of the heart. Even if the law does not require it horse-drawn vehicles ought to bear lights or reflectors which would give a warning to the coming automobilist. Bright reflecting surfaces will flash back the rays of light from the automobile lamps and are much better than no lights at all. A California freighter who had many pack mules going along the automobi

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Speedometer.

Speedometer.

—Every automobile should be equipped with a good speedometer. Speed limits are known to most drivers and if constantly stared in the face by good clear speedometer numbers they are not so likely to exceed them as if they depended entirely upon a sense of velocity, which is merely relative at the best. A motorist is driving along a country highway at a speed of 25 miles an hour, say, when he comes to a village with a sign out, “Speed Limit, 15 miles.” He slacks to that speed by speedometer but fe

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Bad Roads Cause Accidents.

Bad Roads Cause Accidents.

—It is not always the fault of the driver or the vehicle that there is an accident. The roads may be at fault, and while careful driving may decrease the number it can not eliminate all. Slipperiness is hard to combat. This will vary of course with the types of road, with grades, and with height of crowns. But even a pavement, which in dry weather is perfectly safe, will, when it becomes moist, especially if there is a small amount of dust or clay on it, be extremely slippery. Earth roads when t

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Embankments and Guard Rails.

Embankments and Guard Rails.

—Too many roadways are built on narrow embankments and often there are no guard rails. The embankment should always be wide enough to accommodate the traffic with an ample factor of safety. It is not uncommon for vehicles to slide off embankments with fatal results. The writer has before him a recent newspaper clipping of one such case where a bus slipped off the roadway and toppled into the ditch killing one man and injuring several others; the busman had no indemnity insurance. Chains on the w

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The danger from sharp turns

The danger from sharp turns

in roads is so well recognized that state systems are now specifying a minimum radius of 200 feet and when practicable laying curves out very much flatter. The pavement is also being widened at the turns so as to allow the same turning radius on the inner as on the outer track in order that the temptation for vehicles to cross over to the other track may be lessened. Pavements should be widened on a curve so that the inner row of vehicles may pass around on the same curvature as the outer row..

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Superelevation.

Superelevation.

—The superelevation of the outer side of a curved roadway can not at one and the same time be made suitable for all rates of speed. Works on mechanics give the formula for the elevations of the outer edge as e = av 2 gR Or if the velocity, V , is given in miles per hour and the elevation, E , in inches this reduces to E = 121 aV 2 150 R = 0.807 aV 2 R © Underwood and Underwood A DANGEROUS CURVE AT LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN A DANGEROUS CURVE MADE SAFE BY AN ARTISTIC CONCRETE WALL The Tennessee State Highw

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Clear Vision.

Clear Vision.

—Clear vision is another thing that should be insisted upon as a means for safety. Weeds, brush and trees are all too frequently allowed to obscure the sight. With ordinary brakes on smooth roads from 100 to 150 feet is needed to stop a car moving at 30 miles per hour. With first-class brakes this might be decreased, but since it usually takes a driver a short period to react from the time a car heaves in sight or he sees a break in the pavement or some other obstruction, there should be allowed

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Curves.

Curves.

—Notwithstanding curves are dangerous the records of the Maryland State Commission, heretofore referred to, show that the largest number of accidents occur at places which always have been considered safe, while the sections that have been regarded as very dangerous are relatively free from accidents. On the long straight stretches, with good vision and free from any elements that might be considered dangerous, have occurred the greatest number of accidents. The commission accounts for this on t

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Bridges and Culverts.

Bridges and Culverts.

—Many road accidents can be attributed to poor and poorly located bridges and culverts. Wooden bridges and culverts soon decay and become so weak that a heavy vehicle will break them down. Often culverts of the best type are not cared for as they should be or there is no abutment protection with the result that a freshet will wash under and about them so that they are real sources of danger. Frequently the damage is not visible to the driver and the first warning is when his vehicle goes down. I

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Railway Crossing Accidents.

Railway Crossing Accidents.

—The great number of fatalities at railway crossings has for years been a theme for much talk, and many suggestions for the elimination of grade crossings have been made. The public seems to think that the railways are the ones that oppose the elimination. As a matter of fact they would welcome elimination if it could be done at reasonable cost. In 1919 there were eliminated 399 crossings “but there are still 251,939 crossings on Class 1 Railroads (revenue of over $1,000,000 annually) alone and

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The Automobile and Crossing Accidents.

The Automobile and Crossing Accidents.

—To the automobile is attributed much of the increase. And to careless, indifferent and reckless driving the greater per cent of it. The railways have made numerous counts which show the carelessness of the people at railway crossings. Those given below are typical of them all. In December, 1913, St. Louis: On the Baltimore and Ohio, Southwest, 1914: In California, 1913: The California Railway Commission in 1917 tested 17,000 motor vehicle drivers: A Southern Pacific Railway folder gives these f

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Clearance.

Clearance.

—The New York State Highway Commission makes it a rule to secure the following clearance: When a highway passes under a railroad the crown elevation is made 13.5 feet below the bottom of the bridge girder, and the minimum right angle distance between abutments is taken as 26 feet. The distance from the base of the rail to the bottom of the girder varies with the span of the bridge and ranges from 2 ft. 2 in. for a 30-foot span to 2 ft. 4 1 ⁄ 2 in. for a 110-foot span. Where the highway crosses o

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Pedestrians.

Pedestrians.

—While it has been said that 90 per cent of the accidents are due to lack of caution on the part of the driver, it must not be thought that there is no contributory negligence. Pedestrians constantly go across the street without looking up to right or left. Others look with a leer as much as to say, “hit me if you dare,” and leisurely proceed. They will not hurry one bit, thus causing a slow down of the approaching motor and that in turn of the next, and the next, producing a congestion in traff

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Jay Walking.

Jay Walking.

—Another source of danger which can not be too strongly condemned is the practice of “jay walking.” The driver of a car along a crowded thoroughfare is never sure but what some person will pop out from behind a parked vehicle and start across the street directly ahead of his machine. By the ordinances of most cities parking is prohibited near the ends of blocks and the proper walking spaces. Vision is there clear to the sidewalks. The motorist is expecting pedestrians and is on the lookout for t

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Obstacles that Obscure Vision.

Obstacles that Obscure Vision.

—Many pedestrians have received injury or been killed by stepping around the rear of street cars, trucks, and other obstructions to clear vision, directly in front of a passing vehicle. So suddenly does the pedestrian come into the path of the moving vehicle that the driver can not stop before hitting him. The remedy is care on the part of the pedestrian. Look before crossing, is always an excellent slogan....

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Pedestrians on Country Roads.

Pedestrians on Country Roads.

—When pedestrians walk along country roads they should habitually take their left-hand side. Thus they will meet face to face those machines that are passing along that side of the roadway, whereas if they walk on the right-hand side the machines are coming up from their rear and may come near before sounding the horn. A startled person often jumps in the wrong direction, thus moving in front of instead of away from the impending danger....

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Slow-Going Vehicles.

Slow-Going Vehicles.

—Horse-drawn vehicles should travel on the outer side of the road if possible in order to allow faster going vehicles to pass them readily. Often a slow-going truck will take the middle of the roadway and stubbornly keep it even when asked courteously by horn to get over. In trying to pass by going partially off the paved way motors have slipped down due to the soft earth shoulders, with serious injuries to both persons and machines. Where traffic is heavy congestion results from slow-going vehi

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Bicycles.

Bicycles.

—Boys on bicycles become extremely careless and fool-hardy. They cut in front of rapidly moving cars and weave from one side of the roadway to the other. They dart in from behind a parked car or from a side street. When moving not straight along the wheels are always likely to slip on wet spots in the pavement or catch in the flangeway of the street-car tracks. The bicycle is in itself a very useful machine and, perhaps, the most economical vehicle built. Its use is to be encouraged by furnishin

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Road and Traffic Regulations.

Road and Traffic Regulations.

—Very great credit for the development of traffic regulation in the United States during the past two decades is due to the persistent and unselfish efforts of William Phelps Eno, [208] who in the latter part of the last century began an agitation to reform the traffic situation in New York City. In December, 1899, [209] he published an article on “Reform in Our Street Traffic Most Urgently Needed,” followed by many others, with personal letters and visits to the city officers, and with the publ

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Accidents, Symposium on Automobile Hazards, by Ralph Stickle, James L. Roche, Joseph H. Handlon, and William G. Fitzpatrick. Electric Railway Journal , Vol. LVI, pp. 913-921. American Railway Association, Bulletin issued as a part of the “Cross Crossings Cautiously,” campaign, 1922. Darrow, F. T. , Asst. Chief Engr., C. B. &amp; Q. R. R., “Grade Crossing Elimination,” Nebraska Blue Print , May, 1920. Lincoln. Eno, William Phelps , “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation,” published by him

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Trees.

Trees.

— Apple. —A rather good-looking tree with a beautiful show of blossoms in the spring. Used extensively as a road tree in Europe. The native crab-apple and the thorn-apple (red haw) are both fine for their blossoms. They do not grow large so can be used in group planting. Arbor vitae. —A species of cedar used for screens, wind-breaks, and hedges, and for filling in shrubbery where a variety of color is desired. Ash. —There are some half dozen or more varieties found native in the United States co

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Shrubs.

Shrubs.

—Any nursery catalogue will give a wilderness of shrubs from which a good selection may be made. But the discerning road gardener will take advantage of the native plants and not only preserve them but so arrange them along the roadside as to give unity and variety to a complete stretch of road. We notice the large trees because their size thrust them upon us, but we are likely to overlook the smaller plants or think of them simply as weeds to be got rid of. The native wild plants are all too fa

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Climbing Plants.

Climbing Plants.

—A few climbing plants, perhaps, will be needed to complete the plan, but they can readily be found in such plants as: The Wild Grape. —It will grow 50 feet in a season and cover the nakedness of an old fence or stump with lovely foliage and furnish quantities of fruit for bird or human consumption. Ampelopsis quinquefolia. —Another rapid grower, also furnishing beauty and bird food. A. veitchii and A. englemanii are fine for covering brick and stone work. Bittersweet. —Another native climber sh

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Semi-Formal Style.

Semi-Formal Style.

—In what precedes much has been said about beautifying the highway by proper planting. Perhaps one of the nicest and most ornamental pieces of road is that with a single row of trees, uniformly set and of uniform size, down each side; the grass from the roadway out neatly clipped; and the edge of the roadway where it joins the ditch a distinct line parallel to the road center line. This is the geometrical or formal style fully carried out. Hard maples set, say, 75 feet apart will give satisfacto

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Telephone and Other Poles.

Telephone and Other Poles.

—The matter of telephone, telegraph, electric light, and other poles is one that will bother. Telephone companies pay no more and not as much directly for the use of the highway as do trucks, but upon the theory that telephone communication is necessary for the transaction of community business and for the general dissemination of information, and from the further fact that any charge made for the use of the right of way would be passed on to the public as a sort of indirect tax, they are in mos

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“The Ideal Section.”

“The Ideal Section.”

—The so-called ideal section of pavement being sponsored by the Lincoln Highway Association, located about 40 miles south of Chicago, between Dyer and Schererville, Lake County, Indiana, is to have all pole lines and other unsightly features removed, that the natural beauty of the right of way may be enhanced. A prominent landscape gardener has made extensive studies of the land and natural features, it being in a wooded country, and has developed a plan of beautification which will be worked ou

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Location of Poles.

Location of Poles.

—In prairie district where there are no trees to interfere it is customary to set the poles either on the fence line or half the length of the cross-arms into the right of way. In case there are high hedges, trees or other obstructions, the poles are set near the side ditch, and trolley poles often on the very edge of the traveled roadway. On the whole it would seem best in most places to set the poles just outside of the ditch, leaving if possible the extreme edge for the planting of trees and

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Legislation.

Legislation.

—Michigan, California, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Washington, and possibly other states have legislation covering some or all features that have been mentioned for improving and making attractive the appearance of the highway. Other states require property owners to mow the roadside abutting their land each year before weed seeds ripen, but this is not for the purpose of beautifying the roadway. The laws of Michigan provide for the planting and care of t

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Local Conditions Determine Planning.

Local Conditions Determine Planning.

—It cannot be too much emphasized that local conditions must determine the planning. The soil and topography, the future development of the roadway for the probable amount of traffic it is to carry, are all factors that should be considered. Neither must the planting be so profuse that the roadway is hemmed in with no lookout. Vision of the interesting points of view as well as vision along the highway itself must not be obstructed. Long vistas of fields, of hills and valleys, of mountain peaks

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Boehler, C. F. , “The Appearance of our Highways,” Good Roads , Vol. LXII, p. 205; “Selection, Arrangement and Planting of Roadside Trees,” Engineering and Contracting , Vo. LVIII, pp. 233-234. Bryant, Ralph C. , “Logging,” John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York. Dame, L. L. and Brooks, Henry , “Trees of New England,” Ginn &amp; Company, New York. Dudley, Wm. R. Report to the U. S. Senate through Senator O. H. Platt, of the record obtained by counting concentric rings of a felled sequoia tree,

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Ranking and Parking.

Ranking and Parking.

—Frequently the things which will attract the motorist are those which also prevent accidents, which cause vehicles to interfere with each other as little as possible, relieve congestion, which make it easier for the stranger to find his way, as well as make it more pleasant and more comfortable for passenger and driver. All road regulations might be considered under the heading of conveniences and comforts, for they all tend to make traveling more safe and pleasant. Of arrangements of this char

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Parking Spaces a Convenience to Motorists.

Parking Spaces a Convenience to Motorists.

—The figures above show several methods for parking. Spaces in front of fire hydrants and certain building entrances, at crossings, and street car stops are usually marked with no-parking signs and the curb painted a distinctive color. There may be other places where general parking and unlimited time may be allowed. If these spaces happen to be paved it would be well to have the parking stalls marked, as more machines will park when this is done. Such general parking places may be alongside pub

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One Way and Rotary Traffic.

One Way and Rotary Traffic.

—In the crowded cities it has been found necessary to confine traffic to one direction in some of the streets. All streets not wide enough for two vehicles must of course have one-way traffic. Streets a little wider may wish to park or rank cars along one side and have one-way traffic on the other. With parallel streets near together, wide streets even, may be used advantageously as one-way streets with two or more lines of vehicles. For the convenience of the public clear and distinct signs sho

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Taking Care of Opera House Traffic.

Taking Care of Opera House Traffic.

—Special arrangement must be made in large cities in front of opera houses and other places where there are large gatherings. [226] A most difficult problem occurs in New York city between 38th and 41st streets, where several large theaters, opera houses, and halls are located. Mr. Eno suggests that a numbered check be given to the owner of each vehicle with a duplicate to the driver on which are printed directions for lining up to be followed by the driver. As each vehicle comes along the line

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Public Garages.

Public Garages.

—As it was found necessary to go up into the air in large cities to accommodate the demands for room for offices, stores, and other businesses, so now some cities are preparing to build public garages of the sky-scraper type for its automobiles. If press items are correct Chicago is about to make a trial of the sky-scraping garage near the heart of the retail district for the accommodation of automobilists who wish to drive to business, leaving the streets where they now park their cars free for

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Terminal Stations.

Terminal Stations.

—For the purpose of accommodating patrons bus and express terminal stations are being installed. So far these have been established and financed by private companies. Where several bus lines or express lines radiate from a city a union depot may be expected not only to pay, but greatly to convenience the public. Small hotels and out-of-the-way places are ordinarily used when there is no central station. It is difficult to keep these in mind, and as they use the telephones of the hotels, restaura

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Gas, Air, and Water Stations.

Gas, Air, and Water Stations.

—Another business of great importance that has followed the increased use of motor cars is that of the sale of gasoline and oil. Of course there are the large manufacturing and wholesale companies; of those it is not the intention here to speak, but of the retailer who is endeavoring to accommodate the motoring public. There is no city of any size now but what is supplied with one or more filling stations. Much money is being spent on the stations to make them convenient and attractive to the mo

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Named and Numbered Roads.

Named and Numbered Roads.

—For a number of years road enthusiasts, automobile clubs, and chambers of commerce have been selecting and marking main lines of road across the country or through their particular cities. Some of these roads such as the Lincoln Highway, the Santa Fé and the Yellowstone Trails extend across the continent from coast to coast; or north to south as the Dixie, the Jefferson, and the Jackson Highway. There are very many of these volunteer organizations; they attempt to secure the improvement of high

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Marks, Signs and Guides.

Marks, Signs and Guides.

—Whether or not the Government will take over the numbering of through roads the states and volunteer associations will no doubt continue marking. The marks are very comforting to a person traveling on an unknown road, and few there are who do not at sometime travel unknown paths. Not only does it keep him going along the right way but signs giving mileage to the next town are always watched for anxiously. One of the most common and most effective methods of marking a road is to paint a band of

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Distance and Direction Signs.

Distance and Direction Signs.

—Direction signs are such as point out the direction which a traveler must take to keep on a particular route. Distance signs also give information as to distances from the sign to particular places. These two classes are often combined. In addition to these there are warning and detour signs which may also be direction signs. Mile posts are not new. It was the custom to plant them along the old Roman roads. It has already been mentioned that board markers are frequently placed along the state n

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Uniformity of Signs.

Uniformity of Signs.

—It would be well if simple standards could be adopted for the entire United States, or at least for each state, and that all signs be set with uniformity. If placed consistently at the same distance and height from the roadway the eye of the traveler will naturally seek them and they will be more easily read. Evans and Batchelder [229] recommend that double-distance board signs be 36 inches long by 17 inches deep when they carry three rows of names and a fourth row for the authority responsible

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Letters and Colors.

Letters and Colors.

—The letters should be clear and distinct; the style known as block letter is good. The colors should be highly contrasting. Black and white is as good as any; however, Eno [230] thinks that black with yellow and red with white are the best combinations; yellow on black being better than black on yellow. Eno would classify signs as: Primary, those for warning and directing moving vehicles, vivid yellow letters, arrows or graphics, on a black background. Secondary, those for stationary vehicles,

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Warning Signs.

Warning Signs.

—The name indicates their purpose, that they are intended to warn against danger or to indicate that extra precautionary measures should be exercised. They give notice of sharp turns, bad bridges and culverts, railroad crossings, cross-roads, and so on. Frequently the word “danger” is printed followed by a descriptive word indicating the kind of danger; for example, “Danger—sharp curve,” “Danger—bad bridge,” “Danger—railroad crossing.” Or there are used such words as “Slow” or more simply “Slo,”

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Map Signs.

Map Signs.

—There seems to be a tendency toward map signs and the necessary large boards which they entail. It is the opinion of the writer that it would be better except for exceptional places to keep to as small a marker as can be seen readily. The sizes recommended by the International Road Congress are plenty large enough and probably could be decreased without impairing their utility. An ordinary sign is itself an unsightly thing, and after the campaigns that have been made against the advertising bil

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Detour Signs.

Detour Signs.

—Perhaps nothing is more exasperating to the tourist than to come to a barricade with the word “Detour,” and then find the detour road practically impassable. In many states the contractor on a piece of construction work is obligated to care for detour roads and detour signs during the time the road is closed. Finding the obligation not well fulfilled several of the states are taking over that work in order that it might be done in a manner to satisfy the traveling public. Wisconsin [232] consid

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Location of Detour Markers.

Location of Detour Markers.

—The location or arrangement of detour markers in reference to the traveled way has received considerable attention. Of course the first signs are the barricade warning and at the barricade. In Illinois the State Department of Highways requires the barricade warning to be placed about 400 feet from the barricade. The map signs of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Carolina are used also as barricade signs. Any driver, not authorized, passing a barricade is by the laws of some states subject to arre

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Speed Signs.

Speed Signs.

—Most cities and towns have speed limits lower than that allowed in the open country. Some of them even divide the city into zones and make a different limit for each zone. On the outer edge of these zones and the outer edge of the city are often placed signs of warning such as “Speed Limit, 15 miles per hour.” In one city was facetiously added “Go slow and see our city, go fast and see our jail.” On the backs of these signs, the side seen by the traveler as he leaves, are sometimes painted the

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Traffic Guides.

Traffic Guides.

—Before leaving the subject perhaps something more should be said about traffic guides in the cities as most of what precedes has been written with a view to country roads, although many of these signs are applicable to city streets. Lines upon the pavement should be used to define crosswalks, parking spaces, and restricted and reserved zones. Curbstones may be painted white or yellow to indicate no parking against them. In parking spaces the stall lines are painted, as this will keep vehicles c

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Dummy Cop.

Dummy Cop.

—A post, column, or monument designed to stand at the intersection of streets in place of a traffic officer has been called a dummy cop. Mushrooms or cement bumps are sometimes utilized in the same manner. Bumpers are used, too, to indicate restricted and safety zones, isles of safety, etc. A dummy cop at night ought to carry a lantern or be illuminated from some outside source....

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Semaphores.

Semaphores.

—A traffic officer sometimes uses a Go-Stop sign so arranged at the top of a standard that by turning a handle he can present one or the other of these two words to the traffic. Some of them carry a light at night, and an umbrella to shade the officer during the day. They are objected to on the ground that there is no neutral position, they always say either “Go” or “Stop.” If by a change in plan they could be designed so as to show neither word when the officer was not at his post they could ac

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Signal Lights and Colors.

Signal Lights and Colors.

—The railroads in all these years have not come to a common usage of colors in signaling. All roads use red for stop, danger. Some use white and some green to proceed with caution; white and green are both used for clear, proceed. Here white is the same as yellow, because lanterns using oil burn with a yellow light which railroad men call white. Electric signals may be white in reality. There now seems to be a demand for standardization and at a meeting of the American Association of State Highw

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Road and Street Lighting.

Road and Street Lighting.

—While road and street lighting are primarily for the purpose of promoting safety, they, as signs and guides, are here treated under the heading of comfort and convenience to the user. Like other things pertaining to roads, lighting has during the past few years seen wonderful development. Open-arc lights have all but passed out of use. Even in the field of incandescent lighting many improvements have and are still being made. Efforts have been made to cater to the esthetic sense and create beau

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City Traffic.

City Traffic.

—Projectors suspended above a traffic officer illuminates him and his semaphore much as spot lights are used in theaters and flood lights to illuminate statuary and buildings. Many of the busy cities are installing color lenses in the towers (crow’s-nests) to regulate the traffic. The colors which are used both day and night are standardized as follows: Red, to indicate “Stop”; amber, to indicate “Change of traffic”; and green, to indicate “Go.”...

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Touring.

Touring.

—Stand for a few minutes on any one of the transcontinental highways and note the tourists who have their bedding and baggage piled in and tied to the sides of their cars. Note the brown and healthy faces of the brown-clad travelers. Dust has no horrors to them; they expect it; they are prepared for it. Their khaki clothing cost little when purchased and wears well, and even if thrown away at the end of the journey has more than paid its way. The author of “Let me live by the side of the road an

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Camping Grounds.

Camping Grounds.

—So important has this sort of travel become that it is estimated that about 3000 cities and towns over the country, beginning in the Middle West and now spread to both coasts, have public automobile camping grounds for the traveling visitors. These are provided and kept up by the cities themselves or by chambers of commerce or automobile clubs; sometimes by combinations of these organizations. The question often arises, “Does it pay?” From a financial standpoint it probably pays the community a

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Something More Moderate.

Something More Moderate.

—While there are many persons of means, the owners of expensive cars, pitching their tents in shady nooks, enjoying the sociability of glowing camp fires, and sleeping to the music of gurgling trout streams, there are also those who drive cheaper cars who are enjoying the same starry nights, the hum of bees and the flash of birds, who take the gamy trout to help out their daily rations, who stop to regale themselves with wild berries and chokecherries, who relish the chuck-chuck of the red squir

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Camp Sites.

Camp Sites.

—A gentleman, who with his wife and a Chevrolet coupé, the rear of which was modified into a large box about 5 feet square and 2 feet deep, who has “gypsied” across the United States several times from east to west and from north to south, says the problem of a camping ground for an average town is simple. Only a small tract is needed, and if it is properly looked after he thinks the tourists will not complain of a modest charge that will make it self sustaining. The average tourist would prefer

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Hotels.

Hotels.

—For those persons who do not care to camp there are always hotels. During the busy season, however, those in the larger towns which have gained a reputation with the traveling public are usually full to overflowing. Many tourists telegraph ahead, from one to two days, for accommodations. Rooms can be obtained in all the towns but not always bath in connection, or even running water. Throughout the well-settled communities meals and luncheons may be obtained at most any hour. In the sparsely set

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Parks.

Parks.

—The great National parks are being used more each year by automobile tourists. Good hotel and camping facilities are available. These parks are set aside by the Government for the preservation of marvelous natural beauty and grandeur, and the government desires that they be used to the utmost by the citizenry. Perhaps 100,000 people will visit the Yellowstone National Park this (1922) season, of which 75 per cent will come by private automobile. Naturally the larger number come from the nearby

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Information.

Information.

—The last sentence brings us to an important topic. The tourist at the present time inquires at the nearest garage or hotel for information relative to routes and condition of roads, detours, accommodations, etc. This is well, but all these people do not have at hand a knowledge of the information sought, so the traveler must pass on and trust to luck that he may get through. Chambers of Commerce and automobile clubs have endeavored to fill the want, and in the Middle West these places are sough

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SELECTED REFERENCES

SELECTED REFERENCES

Bell, H. H. , “Improved Lighting System to be Installed on the Lincoln Highway,” Electrical World , Vol. LXXIX, pp. 731-732. Blanchard, Harold F. , “A Comparison of Ramp and Elevator Types of Garages,” Bus Transportation , June, 1922. Brook, Mark , “Highway Signs,” American Highway Engineers’ Handbook, pp. 1390-1394. Capper, Arthur , “The Midwest Farm Market for Motor Trucks,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. Eno, William Phelps , “Science of Highway Traffic,” Published by hims

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