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PREFACE
PREFACE
This volume, like its companion, Shelter and Clothing , is intended for use in the course in household arts in the high school and normal school, whether the work be vocational or general in its aim. It is hoped that both volumes will prove useful in the home as well, including as they do a treatment of the homecrafts, and the related topics now so significant to the home maker,—the cost and purchasing of foods and clothing, the cost of operating, the management of the home, and questions of sta
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SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
The topics in this volume are so arranged that they can be followed in sequence as the course of study develops through the year, with such modifications as seem necessary to the teacher in order that the work may best meet the needs of the pupils. The practice has become quite general of beginning the practical work in the autumn with the preparation and preservation of fruit, especially for those pupils who have had previous work in foods; and this plan commends itself as being seasonable and
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. State the important topics in the study of foods. 2. Explain the difference between a “food material” and a “foodstuff.” 3. What are the important elements in protein, fat, and carbohydrates? 4. What food materials are rich in protein? In fat? In carbohydrate? In mineral matter? 5. Explain the meaning and use of the “Calorie.” 6. State the functions of food. 7. What is a food adjunct? 8. What is the waste material in food? There is no more attractive room than a well-fitted kitchen, shining w
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What is essential to the planning of a convenient kitchen? 2. How may cleanliness be secured through the furnishings? 3. What are the requisites in a good work table? 4. Explain the construction of a refrigerator. Of a good sink. 5. Compare the materials used in utensils. 6. What is the advantage of a machine compared with hand power? 7. Make an estimate of the cost of utensils for the home kitchen from a price list obtained from some standard furnishing shop. 8. Examine the utensils in the s
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. Why is the question of the cost and kind of fuel important? 2. What is the difference between hard and soft coal? Between red and white ash? 3. Why are certain fuels in more common use than others? 4. Explain the advantage of gas over coal. Over kerosene. 5. What are the advantages of electricity as a source of heat? 6. Explain the way in which electricity is measured. 7. Read the gas meter at home and estimate the amount and cost per day. (The ordinary burner consumes about two cubic feet pe
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What is a principle in cooking? 2. What are the effects of heat upon the foodstuffs? 3. What is meant by technique in cookery? 4. What are the essentials in caring for food in the house? 5. What are the steps in the preparation of food? 6. Explain the origin and usefulness of a recipe. 7. What are the standard weights and measures? 8. What is the purpose of stirring ingredients? Of beating? 9. What is the difference between boiling and steaming? 10. The difference between baking and roasting?
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
1. Lemonade and fruit drinks. Utensils. —Silver knife for paring and slicing, glass lemon squeezer, a grater, a strainer, and a saucepan. Avoid the use of tin and iron utensils. Materials. —Lemon or other fruits, sugar water. Proportions. —One half lemon to a glass, or 2 or 3 to a quart of water. Other fruits “according to taste.” Experiment here, using the juice and pulp of any fruit, combining those that are very acid with those that lack acidity,—lemon and raspberry, for example. One third to
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What are the functions of water in the body? 2. What cautions should be exercised when drinking water? 3. Explain the likenesses and differences of cocoa and chocolate, coffee and tea. 4. Why is it better to serve whipped cream with cocoa, rather than with chocolate? 5. Explain the principles in making each beverage. Teacher’s Note. —The beverages are treated in one chapter for convenience, but need not of necessity come at the beginning of the course. A fruit beverage, or cocoa, may make a c
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
Class experiment. —Bake side by side two apples of uniform size, one with, one without, the skin. Note carefully the length of time for baking each. What difference? Why is this? It may be necessary in the school kitchen to bake in a quick oven, on account of the shortness of the class period. It does not spoil the apple to do this; but the longer process that you can use at home gives a richer color and flavor. For this experiment, one pupil may bake the apple without the skin, and the next pup
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. Explain the value of fruit in the diet. 2. Why is cooked fruit sometimes better than raw? 3. Inquire the price of fresh fruit in the market, and compute the cost of a 100-Calorie portion of two of the most common and cheapest. 4. The same with one or two of the dried fruits. 5. What are the important points in the preparation of fresh fruit for the table? 6. What changes are effected in baking an apple? 7. What are the principles of the preservation of food? 8. What is meant by a preservative
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
Uncooked vegetables. —Crisp vegetables with tender fiber are eaten raw. Their preparation includes freshening in cold water, thorough washing to remove grit and insects, thorough drying by shaking in a soft cloth or wire basket, and cooling on the ice. Lettuce should not be served so wet that the water collects on the plate, making it impossible to dress the salad with oil. See salad making, Chapter XV. Cooked vegetables. —Vegetable cooking is an art much neglected, and in consequence vegetables
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What is the distinction between fruits and vegetables? 2. How does the composition of apples compare with that of carrots? 3. Contrast the nutritive values of celery, potatoes, and old beans. 4. What other foods must be served with potato to make a meal complete? 5. How may we best retain the mineral matter of vegetables in cooking? 6. Is it allowable to cook a vegetable in boiling water and throw away the water? 7. Why must more time be allowed for baking a potato than for boiling? 8. Why mo
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
Principles of cooking. —1. Softening of the fiber by long-continued low temperature with a supply of water present. 2. Complete opening of the starch granules by the boiling temperature of water. 3. The protein present presents no special problem. Its digestibility is not especially affected, but the softening of the fiber of the cereal makes the protein available to us. Methods. —There are two classes into which the cereals may be divided,—the flaked and the granular. The weighing experiments (
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. For what reasons are the cereal products so valuable? 2. Compare the composition of the different grains. 3. What changes are effected in the proper cookery of cereals? 4. What are the important points in practice? 5. What are the advantages of a good “ready to serve” breakfast cereal? 6. Ascertain the cost of a box of puffed cereal and an uncooked cereal of the same size. Weigh the contents of the two. 7. Estimate the cost of each one served to a family of six. 8. What is the cost of a 100-C
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
Principles of egg cookery. —Protein in the form of an egg-albumin is the foodstuff to consider in the cooking of eggs. Heat produces in the egg a change in color and in texture or firmness, the firmness or hardness depending upon the degree of heat and the length of time given to the cooking. Coagulation is the term used for this change in the egg-albumin. 1. The white of egg begins to coagulate and to show an opaque white at about 180° F. 2. A temperature somewhat below the boiling point of wat
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
Principles of cookery. —Clean, sweet milk is an ideal food, which requires no cooking. Heating milk to 212° F. changes its properties in some way, so that it is not considered an ideal food for babies’ regular diet. If it must be used, for reasons of safety, some uncooked food, such as orange juice, should also be given. This is the reason for pasteurizing milk instead of boiling it. Heating milk in an open vessel causes some of the protein to harden into a thin “skin” on the top. This can be pr
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. Compare the composition of eggs, milk, and cheese. 2. How may an egg which has been kept too long in cold storage be detected? 3. What is the effect of the boiling temperature of water upon an egg? 4. Compare a hard- and a soft-cooked egg for digestibility. 5. What are the dangers from unclean milk? 6. How may the milk supply be safeguarded? 7. Why is cheese a meat substitute? 8. What caution should we exercise in using it? 9. What precaution must we take in cooking cheese? Fats are composed
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
The making of sauces and gravies. —Many sauces and gravies are made from a fat, mixed with a starchy substance, the two mingled with a liquid. The fat gives flavor and nutriment, the starch is used for thickening, the liquid also gives flavor. You are now familiar with the cooking of fat and starch, and can readily understand that the combination of all these ingredients is not an easy matter. The fat will float upon the top of the liquid unless the right amount of starch or flour is used, and t
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
Laboratory management. —The holiday time is the natural season for the candy-making lesson. It is not worth while to spend much time on this topic, at the sacrifice of others....
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What is meant by a fuel food? 2. Why should fat be taken daily? 3. Compare the cost of different kinds of fat. 4. Why is beef fat less expensive than butter? 5. How is fat mixed with other ingredients in a sauce? 6. What is the chief point to consider in the cookery of fat? 7. What is the difference between cane sugar and honey? 8. Compare the cost of a pound of homemade candy with that of good quality bought at a shop. 9. How is fat changed in digestion? 10. How is sugar changed in digestion
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EXPERIMENTS AND RECIPES
EXPERIMENTS AND RECIPES
A. Experiments with baking powder. 1. Dissolve half a teaspoonful of baking powder in two tablespoonfuls of water and heat in a test tube, or saucepan, over a flame; notice the effervescence when the bubbling is at its height, and hold a lighted match in the mouth of the tube. This is a simple test for carbon dioxide. 2. Dissolve 2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar in 1 ⁄ 2 cup water in a glass. Dissolve 1 teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda in 1 ⁄ 2 cup water in a glass. Taste both of these. Test
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What are the chief ingredients of batter mixtures and doughs? 2. Explain leavening by air. 3. Why is steam a leavening agent? 4. How is gas formed for leavening purposes? 5. How does the presence of butter or other fat affect the stiffness of a mixture? 6. What are the important points to remember in mixing ingredients? 7. Why are baking-powder biscuits mixed differently from popovers? 8. What are the most practical oven tests? 9. Why is a loaf cake baked longer than cookies? 10. How many muf
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EXPERIMENTS AND RECIPES
EXPERIMENTS AND RECIPES
Materials. —1 cup of flour, a 10-inch square of cheesecloth, a piece of string, a pan or tin or granite plate. Method. —Tie the flour in the cheesecloth, and wash it, preferably under the faucet, until the starch is washed out. Remove the gluten, stretch and knead into a ball. Place the ball on a pan in the oven. Note results. Note temperature of oven, if possible. 1. Materials , ( a ) 1 cake of yeast dissolved in 1 ⁄ 3 of a cupful of lukewarm water with water added to make 1 ⁄ 2 cupful, ( b ) 1
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What is a standard for good bread? 2. Describe a perfect loaf. 3. How do climate and method of raising affect the composition of wheat and flour? 4. What are the essentials of good bread flour? 5. Why is it so necessary to control temperature in bread making? 6. What is the best temperature and why? 7. Explain the part played by gluten in bread making. 8. State the underlying principles of bread making. 9. Explain the advantage of a bread machine over the hand in kneading. 10. What is the bes
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EXPERIMENTS AND RECIPES
EXPERIMENTS AND RECIPES
Experiment A. Chop finely a small piece of meat, squeeze out the juice with a lemon squeezer and heat this juice in a saucepan. Observe the coagulation that takes place. Experiment B. (1) Apparatus. —If possible, 2 glass beakers, 1 square wire net. If these are not available, use an ordinary tumbler and a small saucepan. (2) Method. — a. Put a small piece of meat in a beaker with cold water, and allow it to stand. b. Bring water to the boiling point in the beaker on the net over the gas flame. T
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
The principles of cookery are the same as with the meat. Chicken soup is made on the same principle as beef soup. After straining, it is delicious with the addition of milk or cream. The meat of the chicken may be chopped fine and used as a thickening. Rice may be added or a hard-boiled egg chopped fine. Chicken may be served cold, for luncheon or supper, and is always very desirable in made-over dishes. Any stuffing left over may be used in the made dishes. Laboratory management. —A lesson on p
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. From what animals are meats derived? 2. What are the chief values of meat? 3. Why should its use be limited? 4. What actual dangers may arise from its use? 5. What precautions must be exercised by the government, inspector and the housekeeper? 6. We are told that chicken pie should have the crust pricked or lifted when it comes from the oven. Is this reasonable? 7. How may you judge good meats in the market? 8. Why is the neck of beef tough? For what would you use it? 9. Why is porterhouse st
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
The scaling and cleaning of fish are important first steps. In the city this may be done for you at the market, but sometimes on fishing expeditions when you are not a successful fisher you may make yourself useful by cleaning the fish. Clean the fish on a large piece of paper. Use a sharp strong knife, and rub off the scales from the tail to the head. To skin a fish well, you should first watch an expert. Cut through the skin of the back and abdomen, loosen it at the tail and pull it off. Remov
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
General directions. —All fish and shellfish should be thoroughly cleansed in cold water before using, and under running water when possible. Wash oysters, clams, and scallops in a colander or strainer under the faucet. If the oyster or clam liquor is used, put it through a fine strainer. Among these, beans, peas, lentils, eggs, milk, and cheese have already been mentioned. Fish is classed also as a meat substitute. Nuts. —These are a valuable meat substitute, some of them having a good protein c
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What is the chief food value of fish? 2. Compare the composition of fish and meat. 3. What are the causes influencing the flavor and quality of fish? 4. What precautions may be taken to prevent the spoiling of fish? 5. How may the oyster beds be safeguarded? 6. In what way does the cookery of fish and shellfish resemble that of meat? 7. In what important way does the cookery of fish differ from that of meat? 8. Why is fish cheapest in season? 9. Estimate the cost of 100-Calorie portion of one
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GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
General directions. —The two important points in the preparation of the material for salad are, first, that everything should be thoroughly dry, and, second, thoroughly chilled. The importance of these two points cannot be overemphasized, and they are of equal value in salad making. Many a salad is unpalatable because it is watery and wilted. For the preparation of green vegetables see Chapter VII. Vegetables should be cut in cubes or sometimes in slices. Meat, poultry, and shellfish should be c
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. Explain the value of salads and desserts in the dietary. 2. What are the important points in a good salad? 3. Give a number of agreeable combinations of material in a salad. 4. What are the substitutes for olive oil? 5. Why should mayonnaise dressing be kept cold in the mixing? 6. Make a classification of the different types of dessert. 7. What is gelatin, and why is it useful in desserts? 8. What are the underlying principles of custard making? 9. Why is it important that the can in a freeze
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. Plan the order of work for the following menus: ( a ) Cooked cereal and cream, stewed prunes, poached egg on toast, popovers, coffee. ( b ) Tomato bisque, lamb chops with peas and mashed potatoes, plain lettuce with French dressing, Brown Betty with foamy sauce, black coffee. 2. What are the important points in serving each dish? Give some simple garnishes. 3. Obtain price lists and estimate the cost of table furnishings. 4. What do you consider good taste in china and silver? 5. What are the
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What are the more permanent factors in the cost of food material? 2. Why is vegetable food usually cheaper than animal food? 3. Explain the effect of season upon the cost. 4. Why does transportation affect the cost of food? 5. Why is clean milk more costly than unclean? 6. How do business conditions affect the cost? 7. Why is wheat bread a truly cheap food? 8. How can we estimate the cost of the actual nutrients in food? 9. Describe the working of the pure food law. 10. Why are such laws nece
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. Calculate your own energy requirement. 2. Calculate the energy requirement of your family group. 3. Find the cost for your locality of the dietary arranged from Menu No. 1. 4. Make a dietary yielding 10,000 Calories, from ten to fifteen per cent of which shall be protein calories, from Menu No. II, and calculate its cost. 5. Find out the lowest sum for which a balanced dietary could be obtained in your locality. 6. Revise the dietary from Menu No. I, so that it shall not cost over one cent pe
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CHAPTER XIX
CHAPTER XIX
The divisions of the income for which we should provide are food, shelter, including taxes and operating expenses, clothing, and the “higher life,” including recreation, education, and savings. The size of the income determines largely the proportion of money allotted to each division. We must be nourished and protected from the elements by shelter and clothing, and an income must at least provide for these necessities to be a living wage. Yet we justly claim something more from our income than
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. Of what value is business equipment in household management? 2. Suggest ways in which a card file might be used in the household. 3. Suggest a system for filing household letters; bills. 4. What should be one’s aim in keeping household accounts? 5. Estimate the cost of your clothing for the last year. 6. Name different methods of payment of bills. Which do you consider the best for the family with $1200 income? 7. Describe fully payment by check. 8. How should a check be indorsed? 9. How can
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What rules should be borne in mind in planning to buy the furnishings for a home? 2. What should guide one in relation to where to buy? 3. What methods of ordering facilitate shopping? 4. What is meant by the ethics of shopping? 5. What important facts should you have in mind in buying table linen? 6. What knowledge should you have before going to purchase a silk dress? 7. What will you think about in selecting colors for your garments? 8. Mention five important facts to remember in purchasin
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. What are the reasons for keeping an inventory of household goods? 2. How should winter garments be cared for in summer? 3. Obtain a price list and estimate the cost of an equipment of brooms and cleansing materials. 4. What are the advantages of a vacuum cleaner over a broom? 5. What are the best methods of removing dust? Of cleaning paint and woodwork and glass? 6. How are metals cleaned? 7. What are the most important points in caring for a bedroom? 8. What is the order of work in a thoroug
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EXERCISES
EXERCISES
1. Why is ironing less necessary than washing? 2. What are the chief cleansing and purifying agents? 3. Explain the difference between hard and soft water. Remedies for hardness? 4. What is soap, and how does it act? 5. Why do we blue and starch clothes? 6. Describe the methods of forcing water through clothes. 7. Why are clothes boiled? 8. What are some of the labor saving devices and methods in washing and ironing? 9. Why must clothes be sorted according to fabrics? 10. What are the essentials
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX
Having seen what each of the foodstuffs does in nourishing the body, we may now see how they are prepared for the use of the body in the digestive tract. Digestion of carbohydrate. —The simplest carbohydrate is a sugar which cannot be broken up into other sugars. Such a simple sugar is called a monosaccharid. There are two common in foods, glucose and fructose; a third, galactose, is derived from more complex sugars. Two simple sugars united chemically make a double sugar or disaccharid; thus ca
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX
Note 1.—Adapted from Table I, Appendix, “Chemistry of Food and Nutrition,” Sherman. See this volume for more complete list. Also Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Note 2.—E. P. signifies edible portion; A. P. signifies as purchased. The Glen is the most sanitary mat known. It does not collect dust and germs as all old style mats do. It requires no beating or cleaning. The Glen is heavily galvanized to prevent rusting. It will not stain either stone or t
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