Darwinism Stated By Darwin Himself - free ebook by Charles Darwin

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Darwinism Stated By Darwin Himself

Charles Darwin

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DARWINISM STATED BY DARWIN HIMSELF.

DARWINISM STATED BY DARWIN HIMSELF.

CHARACTERISTIC PASSAGES FROM THE WRITINGS OF CHARLES DARWIN. SELECTED AND ARRANGED BY NATHAN SHEPPARD, AUTHOR OF “SHUT UP IN PARIS,” EDITOR OF “THE DICKENS READER,” “CHARACTER READINGS FROM GEORGE ELIOT,” AND “GEORGE ELIOT’S ESSAYS.” “There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, while this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless f

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PREFACE.

PREFACE.

While these selections can not but be useful to those who are perfectly familiar with the writings of Darwin, they are designed especially for those who know little, or nothing, about his line of research and argument, and yet would like to obtain a general idea of it in a form which shall be at once authentic, brief, and inexpensive. This volume contains, of course, only an outline of the contents of the twelve volumes from which it is compiled, and for which it is by no means intended as a sub

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INTRODUCTORY PASSAGES QUOTED BY DARWIN IN HIS “ORIGIN OF SPECIES.”

INTRODUCTORY PASSAGES QUOTED BY DARWIN IN HIS “ORIGIN OF SPECIES.”

“But with regard to the material world, we can at least go so far as this—we can perceive that events are brought about not by insulated interpositions of divine power, exerted in each particular case, but by the establishment of general laws.”— Whewell : Bridgewater Treatise . “The only distinct meaning of the word ‘natural’ is stated , fixed , or settled ; since what is natural as much requires and presupposes an intelligent agent to render it so, i. e., to effect it continually or at stated t

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DARWIN AND HIS THEORIES FROM A RELIGIOUS POINT OF VIEW.

DARWIN AND HIS THEORIES FROM A RELIGIOUS POINT OF VIEW.

“Surely in such a man lived that true charity which is the very essence of the true spirit of Christ.”—Canon Prothero . “The moral lesson of his life is perhaps even more valuable than is the grand discovery which he has stamped on the world’s history.”— The Observer (London). “Darwin’s writings may be searched in vain for an irreverent or unbelieving word.”— The Church Review. “The doctrine of evolution with which Darwin’s name would always be associated lent itself at least as readily to the o

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DARWINISM STATED BY DARWIN HIMSELF.

DARWINISM STATED BY DARWIN HIMSELF.

The most widely prevalent movement is essentially of the same nature as that of the stem of a climbing plant, which bends successively to all points of the compass, so that the tip revolves. This movement has been called by Sachs “revolving nutation”; but we have found it much more convenient to use the terms circumnutation and circumnutate . As we shall have to say much about this movement, it will be useful here briefly to describe its nature. If we observe a circumnutating stem, which happens

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THE MOVEMENT OF PLANTS IN RELATION TO THEIR WANTS.

THE MOVEMENT OF PLANTS IN RELATION TO THEIR WANTS.

The most interesting point in the natural history of climbing plants is the various kinds of movement which they display in manifest relation to their wants. The most different organs—stems, branches, flower-peduncles, petioles, mid-ribs of the leaf and leaflets, and apparently aërial roots—all possess this power. 1. The first action of a tendril is to place itself in a proper position. For instance, the tendril of Cobæa first rises vertically up, with its branches divergent and with the termina

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THE POWER OF MOVEMENT IN ANIMAL AND PLANT COMPARED.

THE POWER OF MOVEMENT IN ANIMAL AND PLANT COMPARED.

It has often been vaguely asserted that plants are distinguished from animals by not having the power of movement. It should rather be said that plants acquire and display this power only when it is of some advantage to them; this being of comparatively rare occurrence, as they are affixed to the ground, and food is brought to them by the air and rain. We see how high in the scale of organization a plant may rise, when we look at one of the more perfect tendril-bearers. It first places its tendr

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ADVANTAGES OF CROSS-FERTILIZATION.

ADVANTAGES OF CROSS-FERTILIZATION.

There are two important conclusions which may be deduced from my observations: 1. That the advantages of cross-fertilization do not follow from some mysterious virtue in the mere union of two distinct individuals, but from such individuals having been subjected during previous generations to different conditions, or to their having varied in a manner commonly called spontaneous, so that in either case their sexual elements have been in some degree differentiated; and, 2. That the injury from sel

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POTENCY OF THE SEXUAL ELEMENTS IN PLANTS.

POTENCY OF THE SEXUAL ELEMENTS IN PLANTS.

It is obvious that the exposure of two sets of plants during several generations to different conditions can lead to no beneficial results, as far as crossing is concerned, unless their sexual elements are thus affected. That every organism is acted on to a certain extent by a change in its environment will not, I presume, be disputed. It is hardly necessary to advance evidence on this head; we can perceive the difference between individual plants of the same species which have grown in somewhat

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EXPERIMENTS IN CROSSING.

EXPERIMENTS IN CROSSING.

In my experiments with Digitalis purpurea , some flowers on a wild plant were self-fertilized, and others were crossed with pollen from another plant growing within two or three feet distance. The crossed and self-fertilized plants raised from the seeds thus obtained produced flower-stems in number as 100 to 47, and in average height as 100 to 70. Therefore, the cross between these two plants was highly beneficial; but how could their sexual elements have been differentiated by exposure to diffe

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THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AMONG SEEDS.

THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AMONG SEEDS.

Seeds often lie dormant for several years in the ground, and germinate when brought near the surface by any means, as by burrowing animals. They would probably be affected by the mere circumstance of having long lain dormant; for gardeners believe that the production of double flowers, and of fruit, is thus influenced. Seeds, moreover, which were matured during different seasons will have been subjected during the whole course of their development to different degrees of heat and moisture. It ha

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PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THESE VIEWS.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THESE VIEWS.

Under a practical point of view, agriculturists and horticulturists may learn something from the conclusions at which we have arrived. Firstly, we see that the injury from the close breeding of animals and from the self-fertilization of plants does not necessarily depend on any tendency to disease or weakness of constitution common to the related parents, and only indirectly on their relationship, in so far as they are apt to resemble each other in all respects, including their sexual nature. An

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MARRIAGES OF FIRST COUSINS.

MARRIAGES OF FIRST COUSINS.

With respect to mankind, my son George has endeavored to discover by a statistical investigation whether the marriages of first cousins are at all injurious, although this is a degree of relationship which would not be objected to in our domestic animals; and he has come to the conclusion from his own researches, and those of Dr. Mitchell, that the evidence as to any evil thus caused is conflicting, but on the whole points to its being very small. From the facts given in this volume we may infer

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE TWO SEXES IN PLANTS.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE TWO SEXES IN PLANTS.

Under a theoretical point of view it is some gain to science to know that numberless structures in hermaphrodite plants, and probably in hermaphrodite animals, are special adaptations for securing an occasional cross between two individuals; and that the advantages from such a cross depend altogether on the beings which are united, or their progenitors, having had their sexual elements somewhat differentiated, so that the embryo is benefited in the same manner as is a mature plant or animal by a

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WHY THE SEXES HAVE BEEN RESEPARATED.

WHY THE SEXES HAVE BEEN RESEPARATED.

It is a more difficult problem why some plants, and apparently all the higher animals, after becoming hermaphrodites, have since had their sexes reseparated. This separation has been attributed by some naturalists to the advantages which follow from a division of physiological labor. The principle is intelligible when the same organ has to perform at the same time diverse functions; but it is not obvious why the male and female glands, when placed in different parts of the same compound or simpl

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COMPARATIVE FERTILITY OF MALE AND FEMALE PLANTS.

COMPARATIVE FERTILITY OF MALE AND FEMALE PLANTS.

Thirteen bushes (of the spindle-tree) growing near one another in a hedge consisted of eight females quite destitute of pollen, and of five hermaphrodites with well-developed anthers. In the autumn the eight females were well covered with fruit, excepting one which bore only a moderate number. Of the five hermaphrodites, one bore a dozen or two fruits, and the remaining four bushes several dozen; but their number was as nothing compared with those on the female bushes, for a single branch, betwe

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EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON REPRODUCTION.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON REPRODUCTION.

A tendency to the separation of the sexes in the cultivated strawberry seems to be much more strongly marked in the United States than in Europe; and this appears to be the result of the direct action of climate on the reproductive organs. In the best account which I have seen, it is stated that many of the varieties in the United States consist of three forms, namely, females, which produce a heavy crop of fruit; of hermaphrodites, which “seldom produce other than a very scanty crop of inferior

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CAUSES OF STERILITY AMONG PLANTS.

CAUSES OF STERILITY AMONG PLANTS.

If the sexual elements belonging to the same form are united, the union is an illegitimate one, and more or less sterile. With dimorphic species two illegitimate unions, and with trimorphic species twelve are possible. There is reason to believe that the sterility of these unions has not been specially acquired, but follows as an incidental result from the sexual elements of the two or three forms having been adapted to act on one another in a particular manner, so that any other kind of union i

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AN “IDEAL TYPE” OR INEVITABLE MODIFICATION?

AN “IDEAL TYPE” OR INEVITABLE MODIFICATION?

It is interesting to look at one of the magnificent exotic species (orchids), or, indeed, at one of our humblest forms, and observe how profoundly it has been modified, as compared with all ordinary flowers—with its great labellum, formed of one petal and two petaloid stamens; with its singular pollen-masses, hereafter to be referred to; with its column formed of seven cohering organs, of which three alone perform their proper function, namely, one anther and two generally confluent stigmas; wit

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SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS TO A CHANGING PURPOSE.

SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS TO A CHANGING PURPOSE.

It has, I think, been shown that the Orchideæ exhibit an almost endless diversity of beautiful adaptations. When this or that part has been spoken of as adapted for some special purpose, it must not be supposed that it was originally always formed for this sole purpose. The regular course of events seems to be, that a part which originally served for one purpose becomes adapted by slow changes for widely different purposes. To give an instance: in all the Ophreæ , the long and nearly rigid caudi

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AN ILLUSTRATION.

AN ILLUSTRATION.

To give a simple illustration: in many orchids the ovarium (but sometimes the foot-stalk) becomes for a period twisted, causing the labellum to assume the position of a lower petal, so that insects can easily visit the flower; but from slow changes in the form or position of the petals, or from new sorts of insects visiting the flowers, it might be advantageous to the plant that the labellum should resume its normal position on the upper side of the flower, as is actually the case with Malaxis p

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AS INTERESTING ON THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT AS ON THAT OF DIRECT INTERPOSITION.

AS INTERESTING ON THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT AS ON THAT OF DIRECT INTERPOSITION.

The more I study nature, the more I become impressed, with ever-increasing force, that the contrivances and beautiful adaptations slowly acquired through each part occasionally varying in a slight degree but in many ways, with the preservation of those variations which were beneficial to the organism under complex and ever-varying conditions of life, transcend in an incomparable manner the contrivances and adaptations which the most fertile imagination of man could invent. The use of each trifli

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THE SLEEP OF THE PLANTS.

THE SLEEP OF THE PLANTS.

The so-called sleep of leaves is so conspicuous a phenomenon that it was observed as early as the time of Pliny; and since Linnæus published his famous essay, “Somnus Plantarum,” it has been the subject of several memoirs. Many flowers close at night, and these are likewise said to sleep; but we are not here concerned with their movements, for although effected by the same mechanism as in the case of young leaves, namely, unequal growth on the opposite sides (as first proved by Pfeffer), yet the

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SELF-PROTECTION DURING SLEEP.

SELF-PROTECTION DURING SLEEP.

The fact that the leaves of many plants place themselves at night in widely different positions from what they hold during the day, but with the one point in common, that their upper surfaces avoid facing the zenith, often with the additional fact that they come into close contact with opposite leaves or leaflets, clearly indicates, as it seems to us, that the object gained is the protection of the upper surfaces from being chilled at night by radiation. There is nothing improbable in the upper

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INFLUENCE OF LIGHT UPON PLANTS.

INFLUENCE OF LIGHT UPON PLANTS.

The extreme sensitiveness of certain seedlings to light is highly remarkable. The cotyledons of Phalaris became curved toward a distant lamp, which emitted so little light that a pencil held vertically close to the plants did not cast any shadow which the eye could perceive on a white card. These cotyledons, therefore, were affected by a difference in the amount of light on their two sides, which the eye could not distinguish. The degree of their curvature within a given time toward a lateral li

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INFLUENCE OF GRAVITATION UPON PLANTS.

INFLUENCE OF GRAVITATION UPON PLANTS.

Gravitation excites plants to bend away from the center of the earth, or toward it, or to place themselves in a transverse position with respect to it. Although it is impossible to modify in any direct manner the attraction of gravity, yet its influence could be moderated indirectly, in the several ways described in the tenth chapter; and under such circumstances the same kind of evidence as that given in the chapter on heliotropism showed in the plainest manner that apogeotropic and geotropic,

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THE POWER OF DIGESTION IN PLANTS.

THE POWER OF DIGESTION IN PLANTS.

As we have seen that nitrogenous fluids act very differently on the leaves of Drosera from non-nitrogenous fluids, and as the leaves remain clasped for a much longer time over various organic bodies than over inorganic bodies, such as bits of glass, cinder, wood, etc., it becomes an interesting inquiry whether they can only absorb matter already in solution, or render it soluble; that is, have the power of digestion. We shall immediately see that they certainly have this power, and that they act

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DIVERSE MEANS BY WHICH PLANTS GAIN THEIR SUBSISTENCE.

DIVERSE MEANS BY WHICH PLANTS GAIN THEIR SUBSISTENCE.

Ordinary plants of the higher classes procure the requisite inorganic elements from the soil by means of their roots, and absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere by means of their leaves and stems. But we have seen in a previous part of this work that there is a class of plants which digest and afterward absorb animal matter, namely, all the Droseraceæ , Pinguicula , and, as discovered by Dr. Hooker, Nepenthes , and to this class other species will almost certainly soon be added. These plants c

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HOW A PLANT PREYS UPON ANIMALS.

HOW A PLANT PREYS UPON ANIMALS.

The genus described is Genlisea ornata. The utricle is formed by a slight enlargement of the narrow blade of the leaf. A hollow neck, no less than fifteen times as long as the utricle itself, forms a passage from the transverse slit-like orifice into the cavity of the utricle. A utricle which measured 1/36 of an inch (·795 millimetre) in its longer diameter had a neck 15/36 (10·583 millimetres) in length, and 1/100 of an inch (·254 millimetre) in breadth. On each side of the orifice there is a l

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THEY PRESERVE VALUABLE RUINS.

THEY PRESERVE VALUABLE RUINS.

Archæologists ought to be grateful to worms, as they protect and preserve for an indefinitely long period every object, not liable to decay, which is dropped on the surface of the land, by burying it beneath their castings. Thus, also, many elegant and curious tesselated pavements and other ancient remains have been preserved; though no doubt the worms have in these cases been largely aided by earth washed and blown from the adjoining land, especially when cultivated. The old tesselated pavement

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THEY PREPARE THE GROUND FOR SEED.

THEY PREPARE THE GROUND FOR SEED.

Worms prepare the ground in an excellent manner for the growth of fibrous-rooted plants and for seedlings of all kinds. They periodically expose the mold to the air, and sift it so that no stones larger than the particles which they can swallow are left in it. They mingle the whole intimately together, like a gardener who prepares fine soil for his choicest plants. In this state it is well fitted to retain moisture and to absorb all soluble substances, as well as for the process of nitrification

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INTELLIGENCE OF WORMS.

INTELLIGENCE OF WORMS.

We can hardly escape from the conclusion that worms show some degree of intelligence in their manner of plugging up their burrows. Each particular object is seized in too uniform a manner, and from causes which we can generally understand, for the result to be attributed to mere chance. That every object has not been drawn in by its pointed end, may be accounted for by labor having been saved through some being inserted by their broader or thicker ends. No doubt worms are led by instinct to plug

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INHERITED EFFECT OF CHANGED HABITS.

INHERITED EFFECT OF CHANGED HABITS.

When we compare the individuals of the same variety or subvariety of our older cultivated plants and animals, one of the first points which strikes us is, that they generally differ more from each other than do the individuals of any one species or variety in a state of nature. And if we reflect on the vast diversity of the plants and animals which have been cultivated, and which have varied during all ages under the most different climates and treatment, we are driven to conclude that this grea

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EFFECTS OF THE USE AND DISUSE OF PARTS.

EFFECTS OF THE USE AND DISUSE OF PARTS.

From the facts alluded to in the first chapter, I think there can be no doubt that use in our domestic animals has strengthened and enlarged certain parts, and disuse diminished them, and that such modifications are inherited. Under free nature we have no standard of comparison by which to judge of the effects of long-continued use or disuse, for we know not the parent forms; but many animals possess structures which can be best explained by the effects of disuse. As Professor Owen has remarked,

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VAGUE ORIGIN OF OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

VAGUE ORIGIN OF OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

In the case of most of our anciently domesticated animals and plants, it is not possible to come to any definite conclusion whether they are descended from one or several wild species. The argument mainly relied on by those who believe in the multiple origin of our domestic animals is, that we find in the most ancient times, on the monuments of Egypt, and in the lake-habitations of Switzerland, much diversity in the breeds; and that some of these ancient breeds closely resemble or are even ident

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DESCENT OF THE DOMESTIC PIGEON.

DESCENT OF THE DOMESTIC PIGEON.

Great as are the differences between the breeds of the pigeon, I am fully convinced that the common opinion of naturalists is correct, namely, that all are descended from the rock-pigeon ( Columba livia ), including under this term several geographical races or sub-species, which differ from each other in the most trifling respects. As several of the reasons which have led me to this belief are in some degree applicable in other cases, I will here briefly give them. If the several breeds are not

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ORIGIN OF THE DOG.

ORIGIN OF THE DOG.

The first and chief point of interest in this chapter is, whether the numerous domesticated varieties of the dog have descended from a single wild species, or from several. Some authors believe that all have descended from the wolf, or from the jackal, or from an unknown and extinct species. Others again believe, and this of late has been the favorite tenet, that they have descended from several species, extinct and recent, more or less commingled together. We shall probably never be able to asc

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ORIGIN OF THE HORSE.

ORIGIN OF THE HORSE.

The history of the horse is lost in antiquity. Remains of this animal in a domesticated condition have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings, belonging to the Neolithic period. At the present time the number of breeds is great, as may be seen by consulting any treatise on the horse. Looking only to the native ponies of Great Britain, those of the Shetland Isles, Wales, the New Forest, and Devonshire are distinguishable; and so it is, among other instances, with each separate island in the great

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CAUSES OF MODIFICATIONS IN THE HORSE.

CAUSES OF MODIFICATIONS IN THE HORSE.

With respect to the causes of the modifications which horses have undergone, the conditions of life seem to produce a considerable direct effect. Mr. D. Forbes, who has had excellent opportunities of comparing the horses of Spain with those of South America, informs me that the horses of Chili, which have lived under nearly the same conditions as their progenitors in Andalusia, remain unaltered, while the Pampas horses and the Puno ponies are considerably modified. There can be no doubt that hor

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“MAKING THE WORKS OF GOD A MERE MOCKERY.”

“MAKING THE WORKS OF GOD A MERE MOCKERY.”

We see several distinct species of the horse-genus becoming, by simple variation, striped on the legs like a zebra, or striped on the shoulders like an ass. In the horse we see this tendency strong whenever a dun tint appears—a tint that approaches to that of the general coloring of the other species of the genus. The appearance of the stripes is not accompanied by any change of form or by any other new character. We see this tendency to become striped most strongly displayed in hybrids from bet

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VARIABILITY OF CULTIVATED PLANTS.

VARIABILITY OF CULTIVATED PLANTS.

I shall not enter into so much detail on the variability of cultivated plants as in the case of domesticated animals. The subject is involved in much difficulty. Botanists have generally neglected cultivated varieties, as beneath their notice. In several cases the wild prototype is unknown or doubtfully known; and in other cases it is hardly possible to distinguish between escaped seedlings and truly wild plants, so that there is no safe standard of comparison by which to judge of any supposed a

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SAVAGE WISDOM IN THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS.

SAVAGE WISDOM IN THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS.

The savage inhabitants of each land, having found out by many and hard trials what plants were useful, or could be rendered useful by various cooking processes, would after a time take the first step in cultivation by planting them near their usual abodes. Livingstone states that the savage Batokas sometimes left wild fruit-trees standing in their gardens, and occasionally even planted them, “a practice seen nowhere else among the natives.” But Du Chaillu saw a palm and some other wild fruit-tre

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UNKNOWN LAWS OF INHERITANCE.

UNKNOWN LAWS OF INHERITANCE.

The laws governing inheritance are for the most part unknown. No one can say why the same peculiarity in different individuals of the same species, or in different species, is sometimes inherited and sometimes not so; why the child often reverts in certain characters to its grandfather or grandmother or more remote ancestor; why a peculiarity is often transmitted from one sex to both sexes, or to one sex alone, more commonly but not exclusively to the like sex. It is a fact of some importance to

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LAWS OF INHERITANCE THAT ARE FAIRLY WELL ESTABLISHED.

LAWS OF INHERITANCE THAT ARE FAIRLY WELL ESTABLISHED.

Though much remains obscure with respect to inheritance, we may look at the following laws as fairly well established: Firstly, a tendency in every character, new and old, to be transmitted by seminal and bud generation, though often counteracted by various known and unknown causes. Secondly, reversion or atavism, which depends on transmission and development being distinct powers: it acts in various degrees and manners through both seminal and bud generation. Thirdly, prepotency of transmission

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INHERITED PECULIARITIES IN MAN.

INHERITED PECULIARITIES IN MAN.

Gait, gestures, voice, and general bearing, are all inherited, as the illustrious Hunter and Sir A. Carlisle have insisted. My father communicated to me some striking instances, in one of which a man died during the early infancy of his son, and my father, who did not see this son until grown up and out of health, declared that it seemed to him as if his old friend had risen from the grave, with all his highly peculiar habits and manners. Peculiar manners pass into tricks, and several instances

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INHERITED DISEASES.

INHERITED DISEASES.

Large classes of diseases usually appear at certain ages, such as St. Vitus’s dance in youth, consumption in early mid-life, gout later, and apoplexy still later; and these are naturally inherited at the same period. But, even in diseases of this class, instances have been recorded, as with St. Vitus’s dance, showing that an unusually early or late tendency to the disease is inheritable. In most cases the appearance of any inherited disease is largely determined by certain critical periods in ea

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CAUSES OF NON-INHERITANCE.

CAUSES OF NON-INHERITANCE.

A large number of cases of non-inheritance are intelligible on the principle that a strong tendency to inheritance does exist, but that it is overborne by hostile or unfavorable conditions of life. No one would expect that our improved pigs, if forced during several generations to travel about and root in the ground for their own subsistence, would transmit, as truly as they now do, their short muzzles and legs, and their tendency to fatten. Dray-horses assuredly would not long transmit their gr

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STEPS BY WHICH DOMESTIC RACES HAVE BEEN PRODUCED.

STEPS BY WHICH DOMESTIC RACES HAVE BEEN PRODUCED.

Some effect may be attributed to the direct and definite action of the external conditions of life, and some to habit; but he would be a bold man who would account by such agencies for the differences between a dray and race horse, a greyhound and blood-hound, a carrier and tumbler pigeon. One of the most remarkable features in our domesticated races is that we see in them adaptation, not, indeed, to the animal’s or plant’s own good, but to man’s use or fancy. Some variations useful to him have

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UNCONSCIOUS SELECTION.

UNCONSCIOUS SELECTION.

A man who intends keeping pointers naturally tries to get as good dogs as he can, and afterward breeds from his own best dogs, but he has no wish or expectation of permanently altering the breed. Nevertheless, we may infer that this process, continued during centuries, would improve and modify any breed, in the same way as Bakewell, Collins, etc., by this very same process, only carried on more methodically, did greatly modify, even during their lifetimes, the forms and qualities of their cattle

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ADAPTATION OF ANIMALS TO THE FANCIES OF MAN.

ADAPTATION OF ANIMALS TO THE FANCIES OF MAN.

On the view here given of the important part which selection by man has played, it becomes at once obvious how it is that our domestic races show adaptation in their structure or in their habits to man’s wants or fancies. We can, I think, further understand the frequently abnormal character of our domestic races, and likewise their differences being so great in external characters, and relatively so slight in internal parts or organs. Man can hardly select, or only with much difficulty, any devi

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DOUBTFUL SPECIES.

DOUBTFUL SPECIES.

The forms which possess in some considerable degree the character of species, but which are so closely similar to other forms, or are so closely linked to them by intermediate gradations, that naturalists do not like to rank them as distinct species, are in several respects the most important for us. We have every reason to believe that many of these doubtful and closely allied forms have permanently retained their characters for a long time; for as long, as far as we know, as have good and true

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SPECIES AN ARBITRARY TERM.

SPECIES AN ARBITRARY TERM.

Certainly no clear line of demarkation has as yet been drawn between species and sub-species—that is, the forms which in the opinion of some naturalists come very near to, but do not quite arrive at, the rank of species; or, again, between sub-species and well-marked varieties, or between lesser varieties and individual differences. These differences blend into each other by an insensible series; and a series impresses the mind with the idea of an actual passage. Hence I look at individual diffe

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THE TRUE PLAN OF CREATION.

THE TRUE PLAN OF CREATION.

When the views advanced by me in this volume, and by Mr. Wallace, or when analogous views on the origin of species are generally admitted, we can dimly foresee that there will be a considerable revolution in natural history. Systematists will be able to pursue their labors as at present; but they will not be incessantly haunted by the shadowy doubt whether this or that form be a true species. Hereafter we shall be compelled to acknowledge that the only distinction between species and well-marked

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DEATH INEVITABLE IN THE FIGHT FOR LIFE.

DEATH INEVITABLE IN THE FIGHT FOR LIFE.

In a state of nature almost every full-grown plant annually produces seed, and among animals there are very few which do not annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert that all plants and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio, that all would rapidly stock every station in which they could anyhow exist, and that this geometrical tendency to increase must be checked by destruction at some period of life. Our familiarity with the larger domestic animals tends, I think, to misle

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“INEXPLICABLE ON THE THEORY OF CREATION.”

“INEXPLICABLE ON THE THEORY OF CREATION.”

As each species tends by its geometrical rate of reproduction to increase inordinately in number, and as the modified descendants of each species will be enabled to increase by as much as they become more diversified in habits and structure, so as to be able to seize on many and widely different places in the economy of nature, there will be a constant tendency in natural selection to preserve the most divergent offspring of any one species. Hence, during a long-continued course of modification,

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OBSCURE CHECKS TO INCREASE.

OBSCURE CHECKS TO INCREASE.

The causes which check the natural tendency of each species to increase are most obscure. Look at the most vigorous species; by as much as it swarms in numbers, by so much will it tend to increase still further. We know not exactly what the checks are even in a single instance. Nor will this surprise any one who reflects how ignorant we are on this head, even in regard to mankind, although so incomparably better known than any other animal. Eggs or very young animals seem generally to suffer mos

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CLIMATE AS A CHECK TO INCREASE.

CLIMATE AS A CHECK TO INCREASE.

Climate plays an important part in determining the average numbers of a species, and periodical seasons of extreme cold or drought seem to be the most effective of all checks. I estimated (chiefly from the greatly reduced numbers of nests in the spring) that the winter of 1854–’55 destroyed four fifths of the birds in my own grounds; and this is a tremendous destruction, when we remember that ten per cent is an extraordinarily severe mortality from epidemics with man. The action of climate seems

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INFLUENCE OF INSECTS IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.

INFLUENCE OF INSECTS IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.

In several parts of the world insects determine the existence of cattle. Perhaps Paraguay offers the most curious instance of this; for here neither cattle nor horses nor dogs have ever run wild, though they swarm southward and northward in a feral state; and Azara and Rengger have shown that this is caused by the greater number in Paraguay of a certain fly, which lays its eggs in the navels of these animals when first born. The increase of these flies, numerous as they are, must be habitually c

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NO SUCH THING AS CHANCE IN THE RESULT OF THE STRUGGLE.

NO SUCH THING AS CHANCE IN THE RESULT OF THE STRUGGLE.

When we look at the plants and bushes clothing an entangled bank, we are tempted to attribute their proportional numbers and kinds to what we call chance. But how false a view is this! Every one has heard that, when an American forest is cut down, a very different vegetation springs up; but it has been observed that ancient Indian ruins in the Southern United States, which must formerly have been cleared of trees, now display the same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the surroun

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AN INVENTED HYPOTHESIS.

AN INVENTED HYPOTHESIS.

In scientific investigations it is permitted to invent any hypothesis, and if it explains various large and independent classes of facts it rises to the rank of a well-grounded theory. The undulations of the ether and even its existence are hypothetical, yet every one now admits the undulatory theory of light. The principle of natural selection may be looked at as a mere hypothesis, but rendered in some degree probable by what we positively know of the variability of organic beings in a state of

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HOW FAR THE THEORY MAY BE EXTENDED.

HOW FAR THE THEORY MAY BE EXTENDED.

In considering how far the theory of natural selection may be extended—that is, in determining from how many progenitors the inhabitants of the world have descended—we may conclude that at least all the members of the same class have descended from a single ancestor. A number of organic beings are included in the same class, because they present, independently of their habits of life, the same fundamental type of structure, and because they graduate into each other. Moreover, members of the same

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IS THERE ANY LIMIT TO WHAT SELECTION CAN EFFECT?

IS THERE ANY LIMIT TO WHAT SELECTION CAN EFFECT?

The foregoing discussion naturally leads to the question, What is the limit to the possible amount of variation in any part or quality, and, consequently, is there any limit to what selection can effect? Will a race-horse ever be reared fleeter than Eclipse? Can our prize cattle and sheep be still further improved? Will a gooseberry ever weigh more than that produced by “London” in 1852? Will the beet-root in France yield a greater percentage of sugar? Will future varieties of wheat and other gr

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HAS ORGANIZATION ADVANCED?

HAS ORGANIZATION ADVANCED?

The problem whether organization on the whole has advanced is in many ways excessively intricate. The geological record, at all times imperfect, does not extend far enough back to show with unmistakable clearness that within the known history of the world organization has largely advanced. Even at the present day, looking to members of the same class, naturalists are not unanimous which forms ought to be ranked as highest: thus, some look at the selaceans or sharks, from their approach in some i

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A HIGHER WORKMANSHIP THAN MAN’S.

A HIGHER WORKMANSHIP THAN MAN’S.

As man can produce, and certainly has produced, a great result by his methodical and unconscious means of selection, what may not natural selection affect? Man can act only on external and visible characters: Nature, if I may be allowed to personify the natural preservation or survival of the fittest, cares nothing for appearances, except in so far as they are useful to any being. She can act on every internal organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on the whole machinery of life. Ma

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WHY HABITS AND STRUCTURE ARE NOT IN AGREEMENT.

WHY HABITS AND STRUCTURE ARE NOT IN AGREEMENT.

He who believes that each being has been created as we now see it must occasionally have felt surprise when he has met with an animal having habits and structure not in agreement. What can be plainer than that the webbed feet of ducks and geese are formed for swimming? Yet there are upland geese with webbed feet which rarely go near the water; and no one except Audubon has seen the frigate-bird, which has all its four toes webbed, alight on the surface of the ocean. On the other hand, grebes and

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NO MODIFICATION IN ONE SPECIES DESIGNED FOR THE GOOD OF ANOTHER.

NO MODIFICATION IN ONE SPECIES DESIGNED FOR THE GOOD OF ANOTHER.

Natural selection can not possibly produce any modification in a species exclusively for the good of another species; though throughout nature one species incessantly takes advantage of, and profits by, the structures of others. But natural selection can and does often produce structures for the direct injury of other animals, as we see in the fang of the adder, and in the ovipositor of the ichneumon, by which its eggs are deposited in the living bodies of other insects. If it could be proved th

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DIVERGENCE OF CHARACTER.

DIVERGENCE OF CHARACTER.

According to my view, varieties are species in the process of formation, or are, as I have called them, incipient species. How, then, does the lesser difference between varieties become augmented into the greater difference between species? That this does habitually happen, we must infer from most of the innumerable species throughout nature presenting well-marked differences; whereas varieties, the supposed prototypes and parents of future well-marked species, present slight and ill-defined dif

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EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN EYE.

EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN EYE.

To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree. When it was first said that the sun stood still and the world turned round, the common sense of mankind declared the doctrine false; but the old saying of Vox populi vox Dei , as every ph

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ISOLATED CONTINENTS NEVER WERE UNITED.

ISOLATED CONTINENTS NEVER WERE UNITED.

Whenever it is fully admitted, as it will some day be, that each species has proceeded from a single birthplace, and when in the course of time we know something definite about the means of distribution, we shall be enabled to speculate with security on the former extension of the land. But I do not believe that it will ever be proved that within the recent period most of our continents which now stand quite separate have been continuously, or almost continuously, united with each other, and wit

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MEANS OF DISPERSAL.

MEANS OF DISPERSAL.

Living birds can hardly fail to be highly effective agents in the transportation of seeds. I could give many facts showing how frequently birds of many kinds are blown by gales to vast distances across the ocean. We may safely assume that under such circumstances their rate of flight would often be thirty-five miles an hour; and some authors have given a far higher estimate. I have never seen an instance of nutritious seeds passing through the intestines of a bird; but hard seeds of fruit pass u

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THESE MEANS OF TRANSPORT NOT ACCIDENTAL.

THESE MEANS OF TRANSPORT NOT ACCIDENTAL.

These means of transport are sometimes called accidental, but this is not strictly correct; the currents of the sea are not accidental, nor is the direction of prevalent gales of wind. It should be observed that scarcely any means of transport would carry seeds for very great distances: for seeds do not retain their vitality when exposed for a great length of time to the action of sea-water; nor could they be long carried in the crops or intestines of birds. These means, however, would suffice f

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DISPERSAL DURING THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

DISPERSAL DURING THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

The Glacial period is defined “as a period of great cold and of enormous extension of ice upon the surface of the earth. It is believed that glacial periods have occurred repeatedly during the geological history of the earth, but the term is generally applied to the close of the Tertiary epoch, when nearly the whole of Europe was subjected to an Arctic climate.” The identity of many plants and animals, on mountain-summits, separated from each other by hundreds of miles of lowlands, where Alpine

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THE THEORY OF CREATION INADEQUATE.

THE THEORY OF CREATION INADEQUATE.

As on the land, so in the waters of the sea, a slow southern migration of a marine fauna, which, during the Pliocene or even a somewhat earlier period, was nearly uniform along the continuous shores of the Polar Circle, will account, on the theory of modification, for many closely allied forms now living in marine areas completely sundered. Thus, I think, we can understand the presence of some closely allied, still existing and extinct tertiary forms on the eastern and western shores of temperat

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CAUSES OF A GLACIAL CLIMATE.

CAUSES OF A GLACIAL CLIMATE.

Mr. Croll, in a series of admirable memoirs, has attempted to show that a glacial condition of climate is the result of various physical causes, brought into operation by an increase in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. All these causes tend toward the same end; but the most powerful appears to be the indirect influence of the eccentricity of the orbit upon oceanic currents. According to Mr. Croll, cold periods regularly recur every ten to fifteen thousand years; and these at long intervals

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DIFFICULTIES NOT YET REMOVED.

DIFFICULTIES NOT YET REMOVED.

I am far from supposing that all the difficulties in regard to the distribution and affinities of the identical and allied species, which now live so widely separated in the north and south, and sometimes on the intermediate mountain-ranges, are removed on the views above given. The exact lines of migration can not be indicated. We can not say why certain species and not others have migrated; why certain species have been modified and have given rise to new forms, while others have remained unal

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IDENTITY OF THE SPECIES OF ISLANDS WITH THOSE OF THE MAINLAND EXPLAINED ONLY BY THIS THEORY.

IDENTITY OF THE SPECIES OF ISLANDS WITH THOSE OF THE MAINLAND EXPLAINED ONLY BY THIS THEORY.

The most striking and important fact for us is the affinity of the species which inhabit islands to those of the nearest mainland, without being actually the same. Numerous instances could be given. The Galapagos Archipelago, situated under the equator, lies at the distance of between five hundred and six hundred miles from the shores of South America. Here almost every product of the land and of the water bears the unmistakable stamp of the American Continent. There are twenty-six land-birds; o

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POINTS OF CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN MAN AND THE OTHER ANIMALS.

POINTS OF CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN MAN AND THE OTHER ANIMALS.

It is notorious that man is constructed on the same general type or model as other mammals. All the bones in his skeleton can be compared with corresponding bones in a monkey, bat, or seal. So it is with his muscles, nerves, blood-vessels, and internal viscera. The brain, the most important of all the organs, follows the same law, as shown by Huxley and other anatomists. Bischoff, who is a hostile witness, admits that every chief fissure and fold in the brain of man has its analogy in that of th

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THE FACTS OF EMBRYOLOGY AND THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT.

THE FACTS OF EMBRYOLOGY AND THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT.

This is one of the most important subjects (embryology) in the whole round of natural history. The metamorphoses of insects, with which every one is familiar, are generally effected abruptly by a few stages; but the transformations are in reality numerous and gradual, though concealed. A certain ephemerous insect ( Chlöeon ), during its development, molts, as shown by Sir J. Lubbock, above twenty times, and each time undergoes a certain amount of change; and in this case we see the act of metamo

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TWO PRINCIPLES THAT EXPLAIN THE FACTS.

TWO PRINCIPLES THAT EXPLAIN THE FACTS.

How, then, can we explain these several facts in embryology—namely, the very general, though not universal, difference in structure between the embryo and the adult; the various parts in the same individual embryo, which ultimately become very unlike and serve for diverse purposes, being at an early period of growth alike; the common, but not invariable, resemblance between the embryos or larvæ of the most distinct species in the same class; the embryo often retaining, while within the egg or wo

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EMBRYOLOGY AGAINST ABRUPT CHANGES.

EMBRYOLOGY AGAINST ABRUPT CHANGES.

Unless we admit transformations as prodigious as those advocated by Mr. Mivart, such as the sudden development of the wings of birds or bats, or the sudden conversion of a Hipparion into a horse, hardly any light is thrown by the belief in abrupt modifications on the deficiency of connecting links in our geological formations. But against the belief in such abrupt changes embryology enters a strong protest. It is notorious that the wings of birds and bats, and the legs of horses or other quadrup

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RUDIMENTARY ORGANS ONLY TO BE EXPLAINED ON THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT.

RUDIMENTARY ORGANS ONLY TO BE EXPLAINED ON THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT.

Not one of the higher animals can be named which does not bear some part in a rudimentary condition; and man forms no exception to the rule. Rudimentary organs must be distinguished from those that are nascent, though in some cases the distinction is not easy. The former are either absolutely useless, such as the mammæ of male quadrupeds, or the incisor teeth of ruminants which never cut through the gums; or they are of such slight service to their present possessors that we can hardly suppose t

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“NO OTHER EXPLANATION HAS EVER BEEN GIVEN.”

“NO OTHER EXPLANATION HAS EVER BEEN GIVEN.”

The homological construction of the whole frame in the members of the same class is intelligible, if we admit their descent from a common progenitor, together with their subsequent adaptation to diversified conditions. On any other view, the similarity of pattern between the hand of a man or monkey, the foot of a horse, the flipper of a seal, the wing of a bat, etc., is utterly inexplicable. It is no scientific explanation to assert that they have all been formed on the same ideal plan. With res

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UNITY OF TYPE EXPLAINED BY RELATIONSHIP.

UNITY OF TYPE EXPLAINED BY RELATIONSHIP.

We have seen that the members of the same class, independently of their habits of life, resemble each other in the general plan of their organization. This resemblance is often expressed by the term “unity of type”; or by saying that the several parts and organs in the different species of the class are homologous. The whole subject is included under the general term of Morphology. This is one of the most interesting departments of natural history, and may almost be said to be its very soul. Wha

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INEXPLICABLE ON THE ORDINARY VIEW OF CREATION.

INEXPLICABLE ON THE ORDINARY VIEW OF CREATION.

How inexplicable are the cases of serial homologies on the ordinary view of creation! Why should the brain be inclosed in a box composed of such numerous and such extraordinarily shaped pieces of bone, apparently representing vertebræ? As Owen has remarked, the benefit derived from the yielding of the separate pieces in the act of parturition by mammals will by no means explain the same construction in the skulls of birds and reptiles. Why should similar bones have been created to form the wing

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DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION THE ONLY EXPLANATION.

DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION THE ONLY EXPLANATION.

In works on natural history, rudimentary organs are generally said to have been created “for the sake of symmetry,” or in order “to complete the scheme of Nature.” But this is not an explanation, merely a restatement of the fact. Nor is it consistent with itself: thus the boa-constrictor has rudiments of hind-limbs and of a pelvis, and if it be said that these bones have been retained “to complete the scheme of Nature,” why, as Professor Weismann asks, have they not been retained by other snakes

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THE HISTORY OF LIFE ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION.

THE HISTORY OF LIFE ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION.

Organs in a rudimentary condition plainly show that an early progenitor had the organ in a fully-developed condition; and this in some cases implies an enormous amount of modification in the descendants. Throughout whole classes various structures are formed on the same pattern, and at a very early age the embryos closely resemble each other. Therefore I can not doubt that the theory of descent with modification embraces all the members of the same great class or kingdom. I believe that animals

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LETTERS RETAINED IN THE SPELLING BUT USELESS IN PRONUNCIATION.

LETTERS RETAINED IN THE SPELLING BUT USELESS IN PRONUNCIATION.

There remains, however, this difficulty. After an organ has ceased being used, and has become in consequence much reduced, how can it be still further reduced in size until the merest vestige is left; and how can it be finally quite obliterated? It is scarcely possible that disuse can go on producing any further effect after the organ has once been rendered functionless. Some additional explanation is here requisite which I can not give. If, for instance, it could be proved that every part of th

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MAN’S DEFICIENCY IN TAIL.

MAN’S DEFICIENCY IN TAIL.

According to a popular impression, the absence of a tail is eminently distinctive of man; but, as those apes which come nearest to him are destitute of this organ, its disappearance does not relate exclusively to man. The tail often differs remarkably in length within the same genus: thus in some species of Macacus it is longer than the whole body, and is formed of twenty-four vertebræ; in others it consists of a scarcely visible stump, containing only three or four vertebræ. In some kinds of ba

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POINTS OF RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN MAN AND MONKEY.

POINTS OF RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN MAN AND MONKEY.

As small unimportant points of resemblance between man and the Quadrumana are not commonly noticed in systematic works, and as, when numerous, they clearly reveal our relationship, I will specify a few such points. The relative position of our features is manifestly the same; and the various emotions are displayed by nearly similar movements of the muscles and skin, chiefly above the eyebrows and round the mouth. Some few expressions are, indeed, almost the same, as in the weeping of certain kin

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VARIABILITY OF MAN.

VARIABILITY OF MAN.

It is manifest that man is now subject to much variability. No two individuals of the same race are quite alike. We may compare millions of faces, and each will be distinct. There is an equally great amount of diversity in the proportions and dimensions of the various parts of the body, the length of the legs being one of the most variable points. Although in some quarters of the world an elongated skull, and in other quarters a short skull prevails, yet there is great diversity of shape even wi

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CAUSES OF VARIABILITY IN DOMESTICATED MAN.

CAUSES OF VARIABILITY IN DOMESTICATED MAN.

With respect to the causes of variability, we are in all cases very ignorant; but we can see that in man, as in the lower animals, they stand in some relation to the conditions to which each species has been exposed during several generations. Domesticated animals vary more than those in a state of nature; and this is apparently due to the diversified and changing nature of the conditions to which they have been subjected. In this respect the different races of man resemble domesticated animals,

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ACTION OF CHANGED CONDITIONS.

ACTION OF CHANGED CONDITIONS.

This is a most perplexing subject. It can not be denied that changed conditions produce some, and occasionally a considerable, effect on organisms of all kinds; and it seems at first probable that if sufficient time were allowed this would be the invariable result. But I have failed to obtain clear evidence in favor of this conclusion; and valid reasons may be urged on the other side, at least as far as the innumerable structures are concerned, which are adapted for special ends. There can, howe

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THE INHERITED EFFECTS OF THE INCREASED AND DIMINISHED USE OF PARTS.

THE INHERITED EFFECTS OF THE INCREASED AND DIMINISHED USE OF PARTS.

It is well known that use strengthens the muscles in the individual, and complete disuse, or the destruction of the proper nerve, weakens them. When the eye is destroyed, the optic nerve often becomes atrophied. When an artery is tied, the lateral channels increase not only in diameter, but in the thickness and strength of their coats. When one kidney ceases to act from disease, the other increases in size, and does double work. Bones increase not only in thickness, but in length, from carrying

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REVERSION AS A FACTOR IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.

REVERSION AS A FACTOR IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.

In man, the canine teeth are perfectly efficient instruments for mastication. But their true canine character, as Owen remarks, “is indicated by the conical form of the crown, which terminates in an obtuse point, is convex outward and flat or sub-concave within, at the base of which surface there is a feeble prominence. The conical form is best expressed in the Melanian races, especially the Australian. The canine is more deeply implanted, and by a stronger fang than the incisors.” Nevertheless,

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REVERSION IN THE HUMAN FAMILY.

REVERSION IN THE HUMAN FAMILY.

When the child resembles either grandparent more closely than its immediate parents, our attention is not much arrested, though in truth the fact is highly remarkable; but when the child resembles some remote ancestor or some distant member in a collateral line—and in the last case we must attribute this to the descent of all the members from a common progenitor—we feel a just degree of astonishment. When one parent alone displays some newly-acquired and generally inheritable character, and the

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PREPOTENCE IN THE TRANSMISSION OF CHARACTER.

PREPOTENCE IN THE TRANSMISSION OF CHARACTER.

When individuals, belonging to the same family, but distinct enough to be recognized, or when two well-marked races, or two species, are crossed, the usual result, as stated in the previous chapter, is, that the offspring in the first generation are intermediate between their parents, or resemble one parent in one part and the other parent in another part. But this is by no means the invariable rule, for in many cases it is found that certain individuals, races, and species, are prepotent in tra

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NATURAL SELECTION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.

NATURAL SELECTION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.

Man in the rudest state in which he now exists is the most dominant animal that has ever appeared on this earth. He has spread more widely than any other highly organized form; and all others have yielded before him. He manifestly owes this immense superiority to his intellectual faculties, to his social habits, which lead him to aid and defend his fellows, and to his corporeal structure. The supreme importance of these characters has been proved by the final arbitrament of the battle for life.

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HOW MAN BECAME UPRIGHT.

HOW MAN BECAME UPRIGHT.

If it be an advantage to man to stand firmly on his feet and to have his hands and arms free, of which, from his pre-eminent success in the battle of life, there can be no doubt, then I can see no reason why it should not have been advantageous to the progenitors of man to have become more and more erect or bipedal. They would thus have been better able to defend themselves with stones or clubs, to attack their prey, or otherwise to obtain food. The best built individuals would in the long run h

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THE BRAIN ENLARGES AS THE MENTAL FACULTIES DEVELOP.

THE BRAIN ENLARGES AS THE MENTAL FACULTIES DEVELOP.

As the various mental faculties gradually developed themselves the brain would almost certainly become larger. No one, I presume, doubts that the large proportion which the size of man’s brain bears to his body, compared to the same proportion in the gorilla or orang, is closely connected with his higher mental powers. We meet with closely analogous facts with insects, for in ants the cerebral ganglia are of extraordinary dimensions, and in all the Hymenoptera these ganglia are many times larger

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NAKEDNESS OF THE SKIN.

NAKEDNESS OF THE SKIN.

Another most conspicuous difference between man and the lower animals is the nakedness of the skin. Whales and porpoises ( Cetacea ), dugongs ( Sirenia ), and the hippopotamus are naked; and this may be advantageous to them for gliding through the water; nor would it be injurious to them from the loss of warmth, as the species, which inhabit the colder regions, are protected by a thick layer of blubber, serving the same purpose as the fur of seals and otters. Elephants and rhinoceroses are almos

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IS MAN THE MOST HELPLESS OF THE ANIMALS?

IS MAN THE MOST HELPLESS OF THE ANIMALS?

It has often been objected to such views as the foregoing, that man is one of the most helpless and defenseless creatures in the world; and that during his early and less well-developed condition he would have been still more helpless. The Duke of Argyll, for instance, insists that “the human frame has diverged from the structure of brutes, in the direction of greater physical helplessness and weakness. That is to say, it is a divergence which of all others it is most impossible to ascribe to me

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FUNDAMENTAL INTUITIONS THE SAME IN MAN AND THE OTHER ANIMALS.

FUNDAMENTAL INTUITIONS THE SAME IN MAN AND THE OTHER ANIMALS.

As man possesses the same senses as the lower animals, his fundamental intuitions must be the same. Man has also some few instincts in common, as that of self-preservation, sexual love, the love of the mother for her new-born offspring, the desire possessed by the latter to suck, and so forth. But man, perhaps, has somewhat fewer instincts than those possessed by the animals which come next to him in the series. The orang in the Eastern islands and the chimpanzee in Africa build platforms on whi

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MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS EXCITED BY THE SAME EMOTIONS.

MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS EXCITED BY THE SAME EMOTIONS.

The fact that the lower animals are excited by the same emotions as ourselves is so well established that it will not be necessary to weary the reader by many details. Terror acts in the same manner on them as on us, causing the muscles to tremble, the heart to palpitate, the sphincters to be relaxed, and the hair to stand on end. Suspicion, the offspring of fear, is eminently characteristic of most wild animals. It is, I think, impossible to read the account given by Sir E. Tennent, of the beha

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ALL ANIMALS POSSESS SOME POWER OF REASONING.

ALL ANIMALS POSSESS SOME POWER OF REASONING.

Of all the faculties of the human mind, it will, I presume, be admitted that reason stands at the summit. Only a few persons now dispute that animals possess some power of reasoning. Animals may constantly be seen to pause, deliberate, and resolve. It is a significant fact that the more the habits of any particular animal are studied by a naturalist, the more he attributes to reason and the less to unlearned instincts. In future chapters we shall see that some animals extremely low in the scale

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THE POWER OF ASSOCIATION IN DOG AND SAVAGE.

THE POWER OF ASSOCIATION IN DOG AND SAVAGE.

The savage and the dog have often found water at a low level, and the coincidence under such circumstances has become associated in their minds. A cultivated man would perhaps make some general proposition on the subject; but from all that we know of savages it is extremely doubtful whether they would do so, and a dog certainly would not. But a savage, as well as a dog, would search in the same way, though frequently disappointed; and in both it seems to be equally an act of reason, whether or n

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THE LOWER ANIMALS PROGRESS IN INTELLIGENCE.

THE LOWER ANIMALS PROGRESS IN INTELLIGENCE.

To maintain, independently of any direct evidence, that no animal during the course of ages has progressed in intellect or other mental faculties, is to beg the question of the evolution of species. We have seen that, according to Lartet, existing mammals belonging to several orders have larger brains than their ancient tertiary prototypes. It has often been said that no animal uses any tool; but the chimpanzee, in a state of nature, cracks a native fruit, somewhat like a walnut, with a stone. R

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THE POWER OF ABSTRACTION.

THE POWER OF ABSTRACTION.

If one may judge from various articles which have been published lately, the greatest stress seems to be laid on the supposed entire absence in animals of the power of abstraction, or of forming general concepts. But when a dog sees another dog at a distance, it is often clear that he perceives that it is a dog in the abstract; for when he gets nearer his whole manner suddenly changes, if the other dog be a friend. A recent writer remarks that in all such cases it is a pure assumption to assert

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THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE.

THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE.

This faculty (language) has justly been considered as one of the chief distinctions between man and the lower animals. But man, as a highly competent judge, Archbishop Whately, remarks, “is not the only animal that can make use of language to express what is passing in his mind, and can understand, more or less, what is so expressed by another.” In Paraguay the Cebus azaræ when excited utters at least six distinct sounds, which excite in other monkeys similar emotions. The movements of the featu

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DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGES AND SPECIES COMPARED.

DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGES AND SPECIES COMPARED.

The formation of different languages and of distinct species and the proofs that both have been developed through a gradual process are curiously parallel. But we can trace the formation of many words further back than that of species, for we can perceive how they actually arose from the imitation of various sounds. We find in distinct languages striking homologies due to community of descent, and analogies due to a similar process of formation. The manner in which certain letters or sounds chan

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THE SENSE OF BEAUTY.

THE SENSE OF BEAUTY.

This sense has been declared to be peculiar to man. I refer here only to the pleasure given by certain colors, forms, and sounds, and which may fairly be called a sense of the beautiful; with cultivated men such sensations are, however, intimately associated with complex ideas and trains of thought. When we behold a male bird elaborately displaying his graceful plumes or splendid colors before the female, while other birds, not thus decorated, make no such display, it is impossible to doubt that

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAR FOR MUSIC.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAR FOR MUSIC.

A critic has asked how the ears of man, and he ought to have added of other animals, could have been adapted by selection so as to distinguish musical notes. But this question shows some confusion on the subject; a noise is the sensation resulting from the co-existence of several aërial “simple vibrations” of various periods, each of which intermits so frequently that its separate existence can not be perceived. It is only in the want of continuity of such vibrations, and in their want of harmon

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FROM THE SOCIAL INSTINCTS TO THE MORAL SENSE.

FROM THE SOCIAL INSTINCTS TO THE MORAL SENSE.

The following proposition seems to me in a high degree probable—namely, that any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well, or nearly as well, developed as in man. For, firstly , the social instincts lead an animal to take pleasure in the society of its fellows, to feel a certain amount of sympathy with them, and to

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HUMAN SYMPATHY AMONG ANIMALS.

HUMAN SYMPATHY AMONG ANIMALS.

Who can say what cows feel when they surround and stare intently on a dying or dead companion? Apparently, however, as Houzeau remarks, they feel no pity. That animals sometimes are far from feeling any sympathy is too certain; for they will expel a wounded animal from the herd, or gore or worry it to death. This is almost the blackest fact in natural history, unless, indeed, the explanation which has been suggested is true, that their instinct or reason leads them to expel an injured companion,

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THE LOVE OF APPROBATION.

THE LOVE OF APPROBATION.

Although man has no special instincts to tell him how to aid his fellow-men, he still has the impulse, and with his improved intellectual faculties would naturally be much guided in this respect by reason and experience. Instinctive sympathy would also cause him to value highly the approbation of his fellows; for, as Mr. Bain has clearly shown, the love of praise and the strong feeling of glory, and the still stronger horror of scorn and infamy, “are due to the workings of sympathy.” Consequentl

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FELLOW-FEELING FOR OUR FELLOW-ANIMALS.

FELLOW-FEELING FOR OUR FELLOW-ANIMALS.

Sympathy beyond the confines of man, that is, humanity to the lower animals, seems to be one of the latest moral acquisitions. It is apparently unfelt by savages, except toward their pets. How little the old Romans knew of it is shown by their abhorrent gladiatorial exhibitions. The very idea of humanity, as far as I could observe, was new to most of the Gauchos of the Pampas. This virtue, one of the noblest with which man is endowed, seems to arise incidentally from our sympathies becoming more

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE GOLDEN RULE.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GOLDEN RULE.

There can be no doubt that the difference between the mind of the lowest man and that of the highest animal is immense. An anthropomorphous ape, if he could take a dispassionate view of his own case, would admit that though he could form an artful plan to plunder a garden, though he could use stones for fighting or for breaking open nuts, yet that the thought of fashioning a stone into a tool was quite beyond his scope. Still less, as he would admit, could he follow out a train of metaphysical r

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REGRET PECULIAR TO MAN, AND WHY.

REGRET PECULIAR TO MAN, AND WHY.

Why does man regret, even though trying to banish such regret, that he has followed the one natural impulse rather than the other? and why does he further feel that he ought to regret his conduct? Man in this respect differs profoundly from the lower animals. Nevertheless we can, I think, see with some degree of clearness the reason of this difference. Man, from the activity of his mental faculties, can not avoid reflection: past impressions and images are incessantly and clearly passing through

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REMORSE EXPLAINED.

REMORSE EXPLAINED.

Several critics have objected that though some slight regret or repentance may be explained by the view advocated in this chapter, it is impossible thus to account for the soul-shaking feeling of remorse. But I can see little force in this objection. My critics do not define what they mean by remorse, and I can find no definition implying more than an overwhelming sense of repentance. Remorse seems to bear the same relation to repentance as rage does to anger, or agony to pain. It is far from st

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DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-CONTROL.

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-CONTROL.

Man, prompted by his conscience, will through long habit acquire such perfect self-command, that his desires and passions will at last yield instantly and without a struggle to his social sympathies and instincts, including his feeling for the judgment of his fellows. The still hungry or the still revengeful man will not think of stealing food, or of wreaking his vengeance. It is possible, or, as we shall hereafter see, even probable, that the habit of self-command may, like other habits, be inh

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VARIABILITY OF CONSCIENCE.

VARIABILITY OF CONSCIENCE.

Suicide during former times was not generally considered as a crime, but rather, from the courage displayed, as an honorable act; and it is still practiced by some semi-civilized and savage nations without reproach, for it does not obviously concern others of the tribe. It has been recorded that an Indian thug conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and strangled as many travelers as did his father before him. In a rude state of civilization the robbery of strangers is, indeed, generall

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PROGRESS NOT AN INVARIABLE RULE.

PROGRESS NOT AN INVARIABLE RULE.

We must remember that progress is no invariable rule. It is very difficult to say why one civilized nation rises, becomes more powerful, and spreads more widely, than another; or why the same nation progresses more quickly at one time than at another. We can only say that it depends on an increase in the actual number of the population, on the number of the men endowed with high intellectual and moral faculties, as well as on their standard of excellence. Corporeal structure appears to have litt

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ALL CIVILIZED NATIONS ARE THE DESCENDANTS OF BARBARIANS.

ALL CIVILIZED NATIONS ARE THE DESCENDANTS OF BARBARIANS.

The evidence that all civilized nations are the descendants of barbarians consists, on the one side, of clear traces of their former low condition in still-existing customs, beliefs, language, etc.; and, on the other side, of proofs that savages are independently able to raise themselves a few steps in the scale of civilization, and have actually thus risen. The evidence on the first head is extremely curious, but can not be here given: I refer to such cases as that of the art of enumeration, wh

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“THE ENNOBLING BELIEF IN GOD.”

“THE ENNOBLING BELIEF IN GOD.”

There is no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with the ennobling belief in the existence of an Omnipotent God. On the contrary, there is ample evidence, derived not from hasty travelers, but from men who have long resided with savages, that numerous races have existed, and still exist, who have no idea of one or more gods, and who have no words in their languages to express such an idea. The question is, of course, wholly distinct from that higher one, whether there exists a Creator and

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MAN A SUB-ORDER.

MAN A SUB-ORDER.

The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnæus, so remarkable for his sagacity, and have placed man in the same order with the Quadrumana,

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THE BIRTHPLACE OF MAN.

THE BIRTHPLACE OF MAN.

We are naturally led to inquire, where was the birthplace of man at that stage of descent when our progenitors diverged from the Catarrhine stock? The fact that they belonged to this stock clearly shows that they inhabited the Old World; but not Australia nor any oceanic island, as we may infer from the laws of geographical distribution. In each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is, therefore, probable that Africa was f

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ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATA.

ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATA.

[The Vertebrata are defined as “the highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebræ , which constitutes the center of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system.”] Every evolutionist will admit that the five great vertebrate classes, namely, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes, are descended from some one prototype; for they have much in common

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FROM NO BONE TO BACKBONE.

FROM NO BONE TO BACKBONE.

The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom of the Vertebrata, at which we are able to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a group of marine animals, resembling the larvæ of existing Ascidians. These animals probably gave rise to a group of fishes, as lowly organized as the lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other fishes like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed. From such fish a very small advance would carry us on to the Amphibians. We have seen that birds and reptile

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DOES MANKIND CONSIST OF SEVERAL SPECIES?

DOES MANKIND CONSIST OF SEVERAL SPECIES?

The question whether mankind consists of one or several species has of late years been much discussed by anthropologists, who are divided into the two schools of monogenists and polygenists. Those who do not admit the principle of evolution must look at species as separate creations, or as in some manner as distinct entities; and they must decide what forms of man they will consider as species by the analogy of the method commonly pursued in ranking other organic beings as species. But it is a h

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THE RACES GRADUATE INTO EACH OTHER.

THE RACES GRADUATE INTO EACH OTHER.

But the most weighty of all the arguments against treating the races of man as distinct species is, that they graduate into each other, independently, in many cases, as far as we can judge, of their having intercrossed. Man has been studied more carefully than any other animal, and yet there is the greatest possible diversity among capable judges whether he should be classed as a single species or race, or as two (Virey), as three (Jacqninot), as four (Kant), five (Blumenbach), six (Buffon), sev

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WAS THE FIRST MAN A SPEAKING ANIMAL?

WAS THE FIRST MAN A SPEAKING ANIMAL?

From the fundamental differences between certain languages, some philologists have inferred that when man first became widely diffused, he was not a speaking animal; but it may be suspected that languages, far less perfect than any now spoken, aided by gestures, might have been used, and yet have left no traces on subsequent and more highly-developed tongues. Without the use of some language, however imperfect, it appears doubtful whether man’s intellect could have risen to the standard implied

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THE THEORY OF A SINGLE PAIR.

THE THEORY OF A SINGLE PAIR.

One other question ought not to be passed over without notice, namely, whether, as is sometimes assumed, each sub-species or race of man has sprung from a single pair of progenitors. With our domestic animals a new race can readily be formed by carefully matching the varying offspring from a single pair, or even from a single individual possessing some new character; but most of our races have been formed, not intentionally from a selected pair, but unconsciously, by the preservation of many ind

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CIVILIZED OUT OF EXISTENCE.

CIVILIZED OUT OF EXISTENCE.

When Tasmania was first colonized the natives were roughly estimated by some at seven thousand and by others at twenty thousand. Their number was soon greatly reduced, chiefly by fighting with the English and with each other. After the famous hunt by all the colonists, when the remaining natives delivered themselves up to the government, they consisted only of one hundred and twenty individuals, who were in 1832 transported to Flinders Island. This island, situated between Tasmania and Australia

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STRUGGLE OF THE MALES FOR THE POSSESSION OF THE FEMALES.

STRUGGLE OF THE MALES FOR THE POSSESSION OF THE FEMALES.

There can be no doubt that with almost all animals, in which the sexes are separate, there is a constantly recurrent struggle between the males for the possession of the females. Our difficulty in regard to sexual selection lies in understanding how it is that the males which conquer other males, or those which prove the most attractive to the females, leave a greater number of offspring to inherit their superiority than their beaten and less attractive rivals. Unless this result does follow, th

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COURTSHIP AMONG THE LOWER ANIMALS.

COURTSHIP AMONG THE LOWER ANIMALS.

But in very many cases the males which conquer their rivals do not obtain possession of the females, independently of the choice of the latter. The courtship of animals is by no means so simple and short an affair as might be thought. The females are most excited by, or prefer pairing with, the more ornamented males, or those which are the best songsters, or play the best antics; but it is obviously probable that they would at the same time prefer the more vigorous and lively males, and this has

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WHY THE MALE PLAYS THE MORE ACTIVE PART IN COURTING.

WHY THE MALE PLAYS THE MORE ACTIVE PART IN COURTING.

We are naturally led to inquire why the male, in so many and such distinct classes, has become more eager than the female, so that he searches for her, and plays the more active part in courtship. It would be no advantage, and some loss of power, if each sex searched for the other; but why should the male almost always be the seeker? The ovules of plants after fertilization have to be nourished for a time; hence the pollen is necessarily brought to the female organs—being placed on the stigma by

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TRANSMISSION OF SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS.

TRANSMISSION OF SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS.

Why certain characters should be inherited by both sexes, and other characters by one sex alone, namely, by that sex in which the character first appeared, is in most cases quite unknown. We can not even conjecture why, with certain sub-breeds of the pigeon, black striæ, though transmitted through the female, should be developed in the male alone, while every other character is equally transferred to both sexes. Why, again, with cats, the tortoise-shell color should, with rare exceptions, be dev

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AN OBJECTION ANSWERED.

AN OBJECTION ANSWERED.

Several writers have objected to the whole theory of sexual selection, by assuming that with animals and savages the taste of the female for certain colors or other ornaments would not remain constant for many generations; that first one color and then another would be admired, and consequently that no permanent effect could be produced. We may admit that taste is fluctuating, but it is not quite arbitrary. It depends much on habit, as we see in mankind; and we may infer that this would hold goo

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SEXES CREATED BY SEXUAL SELECTION.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SEXES CREATED BY SEXUAL SELECTION.

There can be little doubt that the greater size and strength of man, in comparison with woman, together with his broader shoulders, more developed muscles, rugged outline of body, his greater courage and pugnacity, are all due in chief part to inheritance from his half-human male ancestors. These characters would, however, have been preserved or even augmented during the long ages of man’s savagery, by the success of the strongest and boldest men, both in the general struggle for life and in the

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HOW WOMAN COULD BE MADE TO REACH THE STANDARD OF MAN.

HOW WOMAN COULD BE MADE TO REACH THE STANDARD OF MAN.

It must be borne in mind that the tendency in characters acquired by either sex late in life, to be transmitted to the same sex at the same age, and of early acquired characters to be transmitted to both sexes, are rules which, though general, do not always hold. If they always held good, we might conclude (but I here exceed my proper bounds) that the inherited effects of the early education of boys and girls would be transmitted equally to both sexes; so that the present inequality in mental po

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“CHARACTERISTIC SELFISHNESS OF MAN.”

“CHARACTERISTIC SELFISHNESS OF MAN.”

In most, but not all parts of the world, the men are more ornamented than the women, and often in a different manner; sometimes, though rarely, the women are hardly at all ornamented. As the women are made by savages to perform the greatest share of the work, and as they are not allowed to eat the best kinds of food, so it accords with the characteristic selfishness of man that they should not be allowed to obtain or use the finest ornaments. Lastly, it is a remarkable fact, as proved by the for

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NO UNIVERSAL STANDARD OF BEAUTY AMONG MANKIND.

NO UNIVERSAL STANDARD OF BEAUTY AMONG MANKIND.

The senses of man and of the lower animals seem to be so constituted that brilliant colors and certain forms, as well as harmonious and rhythmical sounds, give pleasure and are called beautiful; but why this should be so we know not. It is certainly not true that there is in the mind of man any universal standard of beauty with respect to the human body. It is, however, possible that certain tastes may in the course of time become inherited, though there is no evidence in favor of this belief; a

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEARD.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEARD.

With respect to the beard in man, if we turn to our best guide, the Quadrumana, we find beards equally developed in both sexes of many species, but in some, either confined to the males, or more developed in them than in the females. From this fact and from the curious arrangement, as well as the bright colors of the hair about the head of many monkeys, it is highly probable, as before explained, that the males first acquired their beards through sexual selection as an ornament, transmitting the

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARRIAGE-TIE.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARRIAGE-TIE.

Although the manner of the development of the marriage-tie is an obscure subject, as we may infer from the divergent opinions on several points between the three authors who have studied it most closely, namely, Mr. Morgan, Mr. McLennan, and Sir J. Lubbock, yet, from the foregoing and several other lines of evidence, it seems probable that the habit of marriage, in any strict sense of the word, has been gradually developed; and that almost promiscuous, or very loose, intercourse was once extreme

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UNNATURAL SELECTION IN MARRIAGE.

UNNATURAL SELECTION IN MARRIAGE.

Man scans with scrupulous care the character and pedigree of his horses, cattle, and dogs before he matches them; but, when he comes to his own marriage, he rarely or never takes any such care. He is impelled by nearly the same motives as the lower animals, when they are left to their own free choice, though he is in so far superior to them that he highly values mental charms and virtues. On the other hand, he is strongly attracted by mere wealth or rank. Yet he might by selection do something n

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MODIFYING INFLUENCES IN BOTH SEXES.

MODIFYING INFLUENCES IN BOTH SEXES.

With animals in a state of nature, many characters proper to the males, such as size, strength, special weapons, courage, and pugnacity, have been acquired through the law of battle. The semi-human progenitors of man, like their allies the Quadrumana, will almost certainly have been thus modified; and, as savages still fight for the possession of their women, a similar process of selection has probably gone on in a greater or less degree to the present day. Other characters proper to the males o

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“GROUNDS THAT WILL NEVER BE SHAKEN.”

“GROUNDS THAT WILL NEVER BE SHAKEN.”

Many of the views which have been advanced are highly speculative, and some no doubt will prove erroneous; but I have in every case given the reasons which have led me to one view rather than to another. It seemed worth while to try how far the principle of evolution would throw light on some of the more complex problems in the natural history of man. False facts are highly injurious to the progress of science, for they often endure long; but false views, if supported by some evidence, do little

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THE PRINCIPLE OF ASSOCIATED HABIT.

THE PRINCIPLE OF ASSOCIATED HABIT.

It is notorious how powerful is the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in facilitating complex movements; but physiologists admit that “the conducting power of the nervous fibers increases with the frequency of their excitement.” This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation, as well as to those connected with the act of thinking. That

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THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS.

THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS.

Certain states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service; and we shall find that, when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been of any service. When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame of mind, he walks upright and very stiffly; his hea

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ORIGIN OF THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS.

ORIGIN OF THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS.

We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication between the members of the same community—and, with other species, between the opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old—is of the highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries, gestures, a

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THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ACTION OF THE EXCITED NERVOUS SYSTEM ON THE BODY.

THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ACTION OF THE EXCITED NERVOUS SYSTEM ON THE BODY.

The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly affected, on the body, is the loss of color in the hair, which has occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for execution in India, in which the change of color was so rapid that it was perceptible to the eye. Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, w

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VOCAL ORGANS.

VOCAL ORGANS.

With many kinds of animals, man included, the vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means of expression. We have seen in the last chapter that, when the sensorium is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into violent action; and, as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of no use. Hares and rabbits, for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal organs, except in the extremity o

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ERECTION OF THE HAIR.

ERECTION OF THE HAIR.

The enraged lion erects his mane. The bristling of the hair along the neck and back of the dog, and over the whole body of the cat, especially on the tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat it apparently occurs only under fear; with the dog, under anger and fear; but not, as far as I have observed, under abject fear, as when a dog is going to be flogged by a severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog shows fight, as sometimes happens, up goes his hair. I have often noticed that the hair of a d

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ERECTION OF THE EARS.

ERECTION OF THE EARS.

The ears through their movements are highly expressive in many animals; but in some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in this respect. A slight difference in position serves to express in the plainest manner a different state of mind, as we may daily see in the dog; but we are here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely backward and pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus shown, but only in the case of those animals which fight with their teeth; a

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A STARTLED HORSE.

A STARTLED HORSE.

The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One day my horse was much frightened at a drilling-machine, covered by a tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high that his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for the machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with more distinctness through the raising of the head; nor, if any sound had proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His eyes and

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MONKEY-SHINES.

MONKEY-SHINES.

Many years ago, in the Zoölogical Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then approached close and protruded their lips toward the image, as if to kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done toward each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They next

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WEEPING OF MAN AND BRUTE.

WEEPING OF MAN AND BRUTE.

Infants while young do not shed tears or weep, as is known to nurses and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to the lachrymal glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first noticed this fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my coat the open eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, causing this eye to water freely; and, though the child screamed violently, the other eye remained dry, or was only slightly suffused with tears. A similar sl

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THE GRIEF-MUSCLES.

THE GRIEF-MUSCLES.

With respect to the eyebrows, they may occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position in persons suffering from deep dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this movement in a mother while speaking about her sick son; and it is sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position owing to the contraction of certain muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and pyramidals of the nose, which together tend to lo

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VOLUNTARY POWER OVER THE GRIEF-MUSCLES.

VOLUNTARY POWER OVER THE GRIEF-MUSCLES.

Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on their grief-muscles; but, after repeated trials, a considerable number succeed, while others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows, whether assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different persons. With some who apparently have unusually strong pyramidal muscles, the contraction of the central fasciæ of the frontal muscle, although it may be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on the forehead, does

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“DOWN IN THE MOUTH.”

“DOWN IN THE MOUTH.”

To say that a person “is down in the mouth” is synonymous with saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the corners may often be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr. Crichton Browne and Mr. Nicol, with the melancholic insane, and was well exhibited in some photographs, sent to me by the former gentleman, of patients with a strong tendency to suicide. It has been observed with men belonging to various races, namely, with Hindoos, the dark hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, a

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LAUGHTER.

LAUGHTER.

Many curious discussions have been written on the causes of laughter with grown-up persons. The subject is extremely complex. Something incongruous or unaccountable, exciting surprise and some sense of superiority in the laughter, who must be in a happy frame of mind, seems to be the commonest cause. The circumstances must not be of a momentous nature; no poor man would laugh or smile on suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been bequeathed to him. The imagination is sometimes said to be tic

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EXPRESSION OF THE DEVOUT EMOTIONS.

EXPRESSION OF THE DEVOUT EMOTIONS.

With some sects, both past and present, religion and love have been strangely combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the fact may be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which a man bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man. Devotion is chiefly expressed by the face being directed toward the heavens, with the eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep, or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upward and inward; and he

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FROWNING.

FROWNING.

We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception of something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action. In the same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryological development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure, so with the movements of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly as possible the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression seen during the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited, is that dis

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POUTING.

POUTING.

With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is sometimes called, “making a snout.” When the corners of the mouth are much depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded; and this is likewise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to consists of the protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes to such an extent as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this be short. Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes by the utterance of

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DECISION AT THE MOUTH.

DECISION AT THE MOUTH.

No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth. Hence, also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate that the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to be characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination; and if it can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before and during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then, through th

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ANGER.

ANGER.

The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner the meaning of which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from some ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with Europeans, but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are much more commonly retracted, the grinning or clinched teeth being thus exposed. This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on expression. The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered, ready for seizing or

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SNEERING.

SNEERING.

The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground in a deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would try to use his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily believe from our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male semi-human progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now occasionally born

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DISGUST.

DISGUST.

Extreme disgust is expressed by movements round the mouth identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting. The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted, which wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip protruded and everted as much as possible. This latter movement requires the contraction of the muscles which draw downward the corners of the mouth. It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting is induced in some persons by the me

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SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS.

SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS.

We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world, when they feel—whether or not they wish to show this feeling—that they cannot or will not do something, or will not resist something if done by another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time often bending in their elbows, showing the palms of their hands with extended fingers, often throwing their heads a little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening their mouths. These states of the mind are either simply passive, or show a deter

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BLUSHING.

BLUSHING.

Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions. Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush. The reddening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the muscular coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries become filled with blood; and this depends on the proper vaso-motor center being affected. No doubt, if there be at the same time much mental agitation, the general

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BLUSHING NOT NECESSARILY AN EXPRESSION OF GUILT.

BLUSHING NOT NECESSARILY AN EXPRESSION OF GUILT.

It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought that others think or know us to be guilty, which crimsons the face. A man may feel thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without blushing; but if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly blush, especially if detected by one whom he reveres. On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his actions, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray for forgiveness; but this will not, as a lady who

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BLUSHING ACCOUNTED FOR.

BLUSHING ACCOUNTED FOR.

The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it may at first seem rash, is that attention closely directed to any part of the body tends to interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the small arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become at such times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial blood. This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent attention has been paid during many generations to the same part, owing to ner

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A NEW ARGUMENT FOR A SINGLE PARENT-STOCK.

A NEW ARGUMENT FOR A SINGLE PARENT-STOCK.

I have endeavored to show in considerable detail that all the chief expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This fact is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favor of the several races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must have been almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent in mind, before the period at which the races diverged from each other. No doubt similar structures adapted for the same purpose have often been independently

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FUNCTIONAL INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITS OF THE BODY.

FUNCTIONAL INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITS OF THE BODY.

Physiologists agree that the whole organism consists of a multitude of elemental parts, which are to a great extent independent of one another. Each organ, says Claude Bernard, has its proper life, its autonomy; it can develop and reproduce itself independently of the adjoining tissues. A great German authority, Virchow, asserts still more emphatically that each system consists of an “enormous mass of minute centers of action.... Every element has its own special action, and, even though it deri

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NECESSARY ASSUMPTIONS.

NECESSARY ASSUMPTIONS.

I have now enumerated the chief facts which every one would desire to see connected by some intelligible bond. This can be done, if we make the following assumptions, and much may be advanced in favor of the chief one. The secondary assumptions can likewise be supported by various physiological considerations. It is universally admitted that the cells or units of the body increase by self-division or proliferation, retaining the same nature, and that they ultimately become converted into the var

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TWO OBJECTIONS ANSWERED.

TWO OBJECTIONS ANSWERED.

But we have here to encounter two objections which apply not only to the regrowth of a part, or of a bisected individual, but to fissiparous generation and budding. The first objection is that the part which is reproduced is in the same stage of development as that of the being which has been operated on or bisected; and in the case of buds, that the new beings thus produced are in the same stage as that of the budding parent. Thus a mature salamander, of which the tail has been cut off, does no

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EFFECT OF MORBID ACTION.

EFFECT OF MORBID ACTION.

We have as yet spoken only of the removal of parts, when not followed by morbid action: but, when the operation is thus followed, it is certain that the deficiency is sometimes inherited. In a former chapter instances were given, as of a cow, the loss of whose horn was followed by suppuration, and her calves were destitute of a horn on the same side of their heads. But the evidence which admits of no doubt is that given by Brown-Séquard with respect to Guinea-pigs, which, after their sciatic ner

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TRANSMISSION LIMITED.

TRANSMISSION LIMITED.

The transmission of dormant gemmules during many successive generations is hardly in itself more improbable, as previously remarked, than the retention during many ages of rudimentary organs, or even only of a tendency to the production of a rudiment; but there is no reason to suppose that dormant gemmules can be transmitted and propagated forever. Excessively minute and numerous as they are believed to be, an infinite number, derived, during a long course of modification and descent, from each

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MISREPRESENTATIONS CORRECTED.

MISREPRESENTATIONS CORRECTED.

As my conclusions have lately been much misrepresented, and it has been stated that I attribute the modification of species exclusively to natural selection, I may be permitted to remark that in the first edition of this work, and subsequently, I placed in a most conspicuous position—namely, at the close of the introduction—the following words: “I am convinced that natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification.” This has been of no avail. Great is the power of s

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LAPSE OF TIME AND EXTENT OF AREA.

LAPSE OF TIME AND EXTENT OF AREA.

The mere lapse of time by itself does nothing, either for or against natural selection. I state this because it has been erroneously asserted that the element of time has been assumed by me to play an all-important part in modifying species, as if all the forms of life were necessarily undergoing change through some innate law. Lapse of time is only so far important, and its importance in this respect is great, that it gives a better chance of beneficial variations arising, and of their being se

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WHY THE HIGHER FORMS HAVE NOT SUPPLANTED THE LOWER.

WHY THE HIGHER FORMS HAVE NOT SUPPLANTED THE LOWER.

But it may be objected that if all organic beings thus tend to rise in the scale, how is it that throughout the world a multitude of the lowest forms still exist; and how is it that in each great class some forms are far more highly developed than others? Why have not the more highly developed forms everywhere supplanted and exterminated the lower? Lamarck, who believed in an innate and inevitable tendency toward perfection in all organic beings, seems to have felt this difficulty so strongly th

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THE AMOUNT OF LIFE MUST HAVE A LIMIT.

THE AMOUNT OF LIFE MUST HAVE A LIMIT.

What, then, checks an indefinite increase in the number of species? The amount of life (I do not mean the number of specific forms) supported on an area must have a limit, depending so largely as it does on physical conditions; therefore, if an area be inhabited by very many species, each or nearly each species will be represented by few individuals; and such species will be liable to extermination from accidental fluctuations in the nature of the seasons or in the number of their enemies. The p

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THE BROKEN BRANCHES OF THE TREE OF LIFE.

THE BROKEN BRANCHES OF THE TREE OF LIFE.

The affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth. The green and budding twigs may represent existing species; and those produced during former years may represent the long succession of extinct species. At each period of growth all the growing twigs have tried to branch out on all sides, and to overtop and kill the surrounding twigs and branches, in the same manner as species and groups of species h

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WHY WE DO NOT FIND TRANSITIONAL FORMS.

WHY WE DO NOT FIND TRANSITIONAL FORMS.

It may be urged that, when several closely-allied species inhabit the same territory, we surely ought to find at the present time many transitional forms. I believe that species come to be tolerably well-defined objects, and do not at any one period present an inextricable chaos of varying and intermediate links: first, because new varieties are very slowly formed, for variation is a slow process, and natural selection can do nothing until favorable individual differences or variations occur, an

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HOW COULD THE TRANSITIONAL FORM HAVE SUBSISTED?

HOW COULD THE TRANSITIONAL FORM HAVE SUBSISTED?

It has been asked by the opponents of such views as I hold, how, for instance, could a land carnivorous animal have been converted into one with aquatic habits; for how could the animal in its transitional state have subsisted? It would be easy to show that there now exist carnivorous animals presenting close intermediate grades from strictly terrestrial to aquatic habits; and, as each exists by a struggle for life, it is clear that each must be well adapted to its place in nature. Look at the M

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WHY NATURE TAKES NO SUDDEN LEAPS.

WHY NATURE TAKES NO SUDDEN LEAPS.

Finally, then, although in many cases it is most difficult even to conjecture by what transitions organs have arrived at their present state, yet, considering how small the proportion of living and known forms is to the extinct and unknown, I have been astonished how rarely an organ can be named, toward which no transitional grade is known to lead. It certainly is true that new organs, appearing as if created for some special purpose, rarely or never appear in any being—as indeed is shown by tha

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IMPERFECT CONTRIVANCES OF NATURE ACCOUNTED FOR.

IMPERFECT CONTRIVANCES OF NATURE ACCOUNTED FOR.

If our reason leads us to admire with enthusiasm a multitude of inimitable contrivances in nature, this same reason tells us, though we may easily err on both sides, that some other contrivances are less perfect. Can we consider the sting of the bee as perfect, which, when used against many kinds of enemies, can not be withdrawn, owing to the backward serratures, and thus inevitably causes the death of the insect by tearing out its viscera? If we look at the sting of the bee, as having existed i

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INSTINCTS AS A DIFFICULTY.

INSTINCTS AS A DIFFICULTY.

Many instincts are so wonderful that their development will probably appear to the reader a difficulty sufficient to overthrow my whole theory. I may here premise that I have nothing to do with the origin of the mental powers, any more than I have with that of life itself. We are concerned only with the diversities of instinct and of the other mental faculties in animals of the same class. I will not attempt any definition of instinct. It would be easy to show that several distinct mental action

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SOME INSTINCTS ACQUIRED AND SOME LOST.

SOME INSTINCTS ACQUIRED AND SOME LOST.

It may be doubted whether any one would have thought of training a dog to point, had not some one dog naturally shown a tendency in this line; and this is known occasionally to happen, as I once saw, in a pure terrier: the act of pointing is probably, as many have thought, only the exaggerated pause of an animal preparing to spring on its prey. When the first tendency to point was once displayed, methodical selection and the inherited effects of compulsory training in each successive generation

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INNUMERABLE LINKS NECESSARILY LOST.

INNUMERABLE LINKS NECESSARILY LOST.

The main cause of innumerable intermediate links not now occurring everywhere throughout nature depends on the very process of natural selection, through which new varieties continually take the places of and supplant their parent-forms. But just in proportion as this process of extermination has acted on an enormous scale, so must the number of intermediate varieties, which have formerly existed, be truly enormous. Why, then, is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such inte

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PLENTY OF TIME FOR THE NECESSARY GRADATIONS.

PLENTY OF TIME FOR THE NECESSARY GRADATIONS.

Independently of our not finding fossil remains of such infinitely numerous connecting links, it may be objected that time can not have sufficed for so great an amount of organic change, all changes having been effected slowly. It is hardly possible for me to recall to the reader who is not a practical geologist the facts leading the mind feebly to comprehend the lapse of time. He who can read Sir Charles Lyell’s grand work on the “Principles of Geology,” which the future historian will recogniz

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WIDE INTERVALS OF TIME BETWEEN THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS.

WIDE INTERVALS OF TIME BETWEEN THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS.

But the imperfection in the geological record largely results from another and more important cause than any of the foregoing; namely, from the several formations being separated from each other by wide intervals of time. This doctrine has been emphatically admitted by many geologists and paleontologists, who, like E. Forbes, entirely disbelieve in the change of species. When we see the formations tabulated in written works, or when we follow them in nature, it is difficult to avoid believing th

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SUDDEN APPEARANCE OF GROUPS OF ALLIED SPECIES.

SUDDEN APPEARANCE OF GROUPS OF ALLIED SPECIES.

The abrupt manner in which whole groups of species suddenly appear in certain formations has been urged by several paleontologists—for instance, by Agassiz, Pictet, and Sedgwick—as a fatal objection to the belief in the transmutation of species. If numerous species, belonging to the same genera or families, have really started into life at once, the fact would be fatal to the theory of evolution through natural selection. For the development by this means of a group of forms, all of which are de

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HOW LITTLE WE KNOW OF FORMER INHABITANTS OF THE WORLD.

HOW LITTLE WE KNOW OF FORMER INHABITANTS OF THE WORLD.

Even in so short an interval as that between the first and second edition of Pictet’s great work on Paleontology, published in 1844–’46 and in 1853–’57, the conclusions on the first appearance and disappearance of several groups of animals have been considerably modified; and a third edition would require still further changes. I may recall the well-known fact that in geological treatises, published not many years ago, mammals were always spoken of as having abruptly come in at the commencement

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THE EXTINCTION OF SPECIES INVOLVED IN MYSTERY.

THE EXTINCTION OF SPECIES INVOLVED IN MYSTERY.

The extinction of species has been involved in the most gratuitous mystery. Some authors have even supposed that as the individual has a definite length of life, so have species a definite duration. No one can have marveled more than I have done at the extinction of species. When I found in La Plata the tooth of a horse imbedded with the remains of mastodon, megatherium, toxodon, and other extinct monsters, which all co-existed with still living shells at a very late geological period, I was fil

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DEAD LINKS BETWEEN LIVING SPECIES.

DEAD LINKS BETWEEN LIVING SPECIES.

No one will deny that the Hipparion is intermediate between the existing horse and certain older ungulate forms. What a wonderful connecting link in the chain of mammals is the Typotherium from South America, as the name given to it by Professor Gervais expresses, and which can not be placed in any existing order! The Sirenia form a very distinct group of mammals, and one of the most remarkable peculiarities in the existing dugong and lamentin is the entire absence of hind limbs, without even a

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LIVING DESCENDANTS OF FOSSIL SPECIES.

LIVING DESCENDANTS OF FOSSIL SPECIES.

It may be asked in ridicule, whether I suppose that the megatherium and other allied huge monsters, which formerly lived in South America, have left behind them the sloth, armadillo, and ant-eater, as their degenerate descendants. This can not for an instant be admitted. These huge animals have become wholly extinct, and have left no progeny. But in the caves of Brazil there are many extinct species which are closely allied in size and in all other characters to the species still living in South

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UNNECESSARY TO EXPLAIN THE CAUSE OF EACH INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE.

UNNECESSARY TO EXPLAIN THE CAUSE OF EACH INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE.

In accordance with the views maintained by me in this work and elsewhere, not only various domestic races, but the most distinct genera and orders within the same great class—for instance, mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes—are all the descendants of one common progenitor, and we must admit that the whole vast amount of difference between these forms has primarily arisen from simple variability. To consider the subject under this point of view is enough to strike one dumb with amazement. But o

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“FACE TO FACE WITH AN INSOLUBLE DIFFICULTY.”

“FACE TO FACE WITH AN INSOLUBLE DIFFICULTY.”

And here we are led to face a great difficulty, in alluding to which I am aware that I am traveling beyond my proper province. An omniscient Creator must have foreseen every consequence which results from the laws imposed by him. But can it be reasonably maintained that the Creator intentionally ordered, if we use the words in any ordinary sense, that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes so that the builder might erect his edifice? If the various laws which have determined the

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WHY DISTASTEFUL?

WHY DISTASTEFUL?

The main conclusion arrived at in this work, namely, that man is descended from some lowly organized form, will, I regret to think, be highly distasteful to many. But there can hardly be a doubt that we are descended from barbarians. The astonishment which I felt on first seeing a party of Fuegians on a wild and broken shore will never be forgotten by me, for the reflection at once rushed into my mind—such were our ancestors. These men were absolutely naked and bedaubed with paint, their long ha

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“ACCORDS BETTER WITH WHAT WE KNOW OF THE CREATOR’S LAWS.”

“ACCORDS BETTER WITH WHAT WE KNOW OF THE CREATOR’S LAWS.”

Authors of the highest eminence seem to be fully satisfied with the view that each species has been independently created. To my mind it accords better with what we know of the laws impressed on matter by the Creator, that the production and extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should have been due to secondary causes, like those determining the birth and death of the individual. When I view all beings not as special creations, but as the lineal descendants of some few bei

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THE GRANDEUR OF THIS VIEW OF LIFE.

THE GRANDEUR OF THIS VIEW OF LIFE.

It is interesting to contemplate a tangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent upon each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the largest sense, being growth with reproduction; inheritance which is almost im

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NOT INCOMPATIBLE WITH THE BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY.

NOT INCOMPATIBLE WITH THE BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY.

I am aware that the assumed instinctive belief in God has been used by many persons as a rash argument for his existence. But this is a rash argument, as we should thus be compelled to believe in the existence of many cruel and malignant spirits, only a little more powerful than man; for the belief in them is far more general than in a beneficent Deity. The idea of a universal and beneficent Creator does not seem to arise in the mind of man, until he has been elevated by long-continued culture.

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