A Handbook Of Pictorial History - free ebook by Henry W. Donald

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A Handbook Of Pictorial History

Henry W. Donald

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A HANDBOOK OF PICTORIAL HISTORY.

A HANDBOOK OF PICTORIAL HISTORY.

A Handbook of PICTORIAL HISTORY Containing 680 Illustrations from Original &amp; Contemporary Sources treating upon Architecture, Arms and Armour, Antiquities, Costumes, Customs, Shipping, Heraldry, The Church, etc. with Notes and Descriptive Articles on These Subjects for the use of Students &amp; Teachers. Written and Illustrated by HENRY W. DONALD Compiler of the Britannic Historical Geography &amp; the Suggestions Historical Drawing Cards etc. LONDON: Charles and Son, Ltd. 10, PA

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PREFACE.

PREFACE.

It has been felt that in the study of English History, to the ordinary student and teacher, there are great difficulties in the way of consulting the numerous standard and other excellent works, on the subjects dealt with in this volume. Many have not sufficient leisure, and many are unable to make use of the facilities for study and research offered by our great national and provincial libraries and museums. And, to most, the prohibitive cost of a representative collection of these standard wor

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THE STONE AGE.

THE STONE AGE.

The Flint Weapons of Prehistoric Man in Britain. When Britain was joined to the continent of Europe (at the time when the mammoth lived), it was inhabited by the Palæolithic or Ancient Stone men . They were ignorant of the use of metals, and used implements of bone and of rudely chipped stone and flint, which they did not know how to fasten to handles. These implements and weapons, of a different type from those of later periods, are found in the river beds of drifts, and these early people are

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THE BRONZE AGE.

THE BRONZE AGE.

The Iberians were succeeded by the Celts, who conquered, and probably intermarried with, the former. They had a knowledge of the use of metals, and employed copper first for the manufacture of their weapons and tools. Then they learned that, by mixing tin with copper, a harder metal was obtained, which we call bronze, and this period is, consequently, called the Bronze Age . The early bronze weapons were of the same form as the flint weapons, for probably the latter were used as “patterns” for f

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PREHISTORIC POTTERY AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS.

PREHISTORIC POTTERY AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS.

Neolithic men (of the Later Stone Age) buried their dead in the caves which they had used for dwellings, or in stone chambers, probably representing the huts in which they lived. Each of these was used as a vault, common to the family or tribe, for they are found containing skeletons of all ages. The dead were buried in the tomb as they died, in a contracted or crouching position, laid upon their sides, probably due to their sleeping in that position, and not at full length on a bed. Implements

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THE ROMAN WALL.

THE ROMAN WALL.

Much difference of opinion has been expressed between archæologists as to who built the Roman Wall, it being severally attributed to both Hadrian and Severus. A recent writer of authority says: “No one really knows who built the Roman Wall, and the evidence now available is, in the present writer’s opinion, wholly insufficient to enable us to decide the difficult problem.... A commonsense and probable view is that Hadrian caused the vallum (earthen rampart), which may have been there before his

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ROMAN POTTERY, Etc.

ROMAN POTTERY, Etc.

( In the Guildhall Museum, London. ) “After the Roman occupation of Britain, glass and pottery were made here in large quantities, so that the importation of glass, which was carried on at first, ceased to be necessary.” Samian ware , which was a red glazed ware, was used ordinarily throughout the western half of the Roman Empire. It was manufactured first in Etruria, but afterwards its manufacture was imitated in Gaul. Very little of the genuine Samian ware from Etruria found its way into Brita

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ROMAN ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LONDON.

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LONDON.

( Guildhall Museum. ) The Roman influence in Britain was directed to the civilizing of the inhabitants. It gave the people better conditions of life; it guaranteed protection against the tyrannies of petty chieftains; and it gave to them the resources of Roman civilisation. The Roman remains that are to be found in our museums, unearthed after centuries of oblivion, show how definite was the influence of the Romans in the comforts and necessities of daily life. “Keys and steelyards, roofing tile

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ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN.

Roman architecture in Britain, judging from the remains of buildings, was generally of an inferior description, for Britain was a remote and half-civilised province, and little attention appears to have been paid to make the buildings very ornate. There are two principal varieties of masonry employed in their construction. The first, which is very characteristic, consists of layers of irregularly shaped stones and flat tiles embedded in mortar, generally arranged in alternate layers of tiles and

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ROMAN ARMS, Etc.

ROMAN ARMS, Etc.

PLATE 8. (Fig. 1): A Roman galley (from Pompeii). (Fig. 2): A Roman Eagle. This was mounted on a pole and carried before the Legion. The soldiers rallied round it and fought for its honour. It corresponded with the regimental flags of our time. (Fig. 3): A Roman sword. This was remarkable for the 25 shortness of its blade. It was suspended from a shoulder belt passing over the left shoulder, so that the sword hung on the right side, a custom which was possible on account of the shortness of the

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SAXON WEAPONS.

SAXON WEAPONS.

The Saxon arms were the spear, the axe, the sword, the dagger, the long-bow, and the arrow. The defensive armour consisted of helmet, shield, and byrnie. The Spear was the chief weapon of the Saxons. It was of two forms: (1) 9 or 10 ft. long, for use against cavalry or as a cavalry weapon, and (2) about 6 ft. long, for use as a javelin or throwing spear. When the latter was used, it was generally carried in pairs. The spear, or, rather, the spear-head is always found in Saxon graves, as it was b

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SAXON COSTUME, A.D. 460-A.D. 1066.

SAXON COSTUME, A.D. 460-A.D. 1066.

The main sources from which we obtain our knowledge of Saxon Costume are the illuminated MSS. remaining to us. The earliest MS. we have was written A.D. 720, about 200 years after the Saxon Conquest. Of this long period we have no reliable record. We know, however, that on their first appearance in Britain, they were not so advanced in civilisation as the inhabitants, who had gained a considerable advantage, in this respect, from the Roman occupation. The only reliable source from which informat

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ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE.

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE.

Buildings erected from about 500 A.D. to 1050 A.D. are called Anglo-Saxon, or simply Saxon, in their style. The Romans built in stone and brick, but the English, when they conquered Britain, razed the Roman buildings to the ground, and built their own structures of wood. It is interesting to note that the Saxon word for “build” was “getimbrian,” to construct of wood. From the middle of the 5th century, for nearly 700 years, until the time when the Norman Castle arose, well-nigh every building of

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SAXON CUSTOMS.

SAXON CUSTOMS.

At meal-times the company sat down in the hall, the master, mistress, and honoured guests taking their places at a “high” table placed on a dais at the upper end of the apartment. Dinner was generally served either at noon or at about 3 o’clock in the afternoon. The walls were decorated with coloured and embroidered curtains, for English ladies and their maidens were famed for their skill with the needle in embroidery and decorative needlework. The tables consisted of boards laid upon trestles,

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SAXON FARMING.

SAXON FARMING.

Both these figures are taken from an Old English calendar of the eleventh century (after Strutt). Cott. MS., Julius A. vi. This calendar is arranged as in a modern almanack, with a page to each month and a line to each day. At the foot of each page there is a drawing, typical of the work carried on during that month. PLATE 14. (Fig. 1): January . This month was called by the English, when heathen, “Wolf-monath,” because the wolves were most troublesome at this period of the year. When the Englis

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SAXON ANTIQUITIES.

SAXON ANTIQUITIES.

PLATE 15. (Fig. 1): A long Saxon drinking glass, ornamented with raised and decorated ribbons of glass. The bottom is rounded, so that when filled with liquid it had to be emptied at one draught. (British Museum.) (Fig. 2): Another form of Saxon drinking vessel. (British Museum.) (Fig. 3): Old English bronze vessel found in a barrow at Taplow, in Bucks, in 1883, now in the British Museum. (Fig. 4): A silver spoon (Anglo-Saxon) found at Sevington, in Wiltshire, in 1834. (British Museum.) (Fig. 5)

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DANISH VESSELS, Etc.

DANISH VESSELS, Etc.

PLATE 16. (Fig. 1): A Norseman’s boat found in a peat bog at Nydam, in South Jutland, in 1863. It is clincher-built of oak, is large, open and pointed at both ends, and is designed only for rowing, as there is no trace of a mast and no arrangement for stepping one. It is 78 ft. between the high points at the stem and the stern, and 10 ft. 9 in. broad amidships. It was rowed with fourteen pairs of oars, which are like those still used in the North, and are 11 ft. 2 in. long. The rudder is narrow,

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NORMAN CUSTOMS.

NORMAN CUSTOMS.

The ordinary costumes of people in early Norman times differed little from that of the Saxons. At first the Norman warriors were clean-shaven, but after settling in England the courtiers gave way to a love of finery. They wore long, embroidered garments with long white sleeves, and they allowed their hair and beards to grow long so that they incurred the reproach of the clergy, who called them “filthy goats.” The Norman ladies also changed from the simplicity of their costume to a great extravag

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NORMAN ARMS AND ARMOUR.

NORMAN ARMS AND ARMOUR.

The military costumes of the early Normans and the Saxons were very similar on account of the intercourse between the Courts of England and Normandy at the time immediately preceding the Conquest, and much of our knowledge of Norman military costume is obtained from the Bayeux Tapestry. The arms in use among the Normans were the sword (which only soldiers of superior rank were allowed to carry), the axe, the lance or spear, the mace, and the bow and arrows. The sword was, as might be expected, o

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THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY.

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY.

The Bayeux Tapestry is a valuable picture of the manners and costumes of the Normans and the English about the time of the Norman Conquest. It is traditionally recorded to have been worked by Queen Matilda (the wife of William the Conqueror) and the ladies of her Court, to commemorate the invasion and conquest of England by her husband. There is no evidence to prove this, and consequently there is much doubt about it; but it is held on the best authority that though the Tapestry is a contemporar

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EARLY NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

EARLY NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

Norman, Anglo-Norman, or Romanesque architecture was called by the former name because it followed the Norman style. It is found in Normandy itself, in England, in Italy, and Sicily—in fact, wherever the Northern conquerors established themselves. Its chief characteristics are solidity and strength—walls of enormous thickness, huge masses of masonry for piers, windows comparatively small, and a profusion of peculiar ornaments. The earliest Norman work in England—as the transepts of Winchester Ca

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LATER NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

LATER NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

The Earlier period of Norman architecture may be approximately closed in 1120 A.D. (fifty-four years after the Battle of Hastings). In the Later period the chisel took the place of the axe in the cutting of the ornament. Consequently there is a fineness and a more finished style of work, which could not be executed with the latter tool. The Later or rich Norman style is chiefly characterised by the abundance of the ornament and the deep cutting. Sculpture, which was sparingly used in the earlier

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NORMAN CASTLES.

NORMAN CASTLES.

When Duke William of Normandy invaded England in 1066, the existing type of fortification called a burh was a moated hillock, either wholly or partly artificial, surmounted by a timber stockade enclosing a wooden house or tower. He repaired and enlarged many of the existing strongholds, and also built many new wooden castles. But in order to overawe the conquered English he erected in the larger towns square stone keeps or castles, like the White Tower in the Tower of London. Gundulph, Bishop of

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NORMAN SEALS AND COINS.

NORMAN SEALS AND COINS.

Seals are held in the highest estimation as reliable contemporary authorities in English heraldry, costume, armour, etc. The matrix or die was usually of latten or bronze, and in the case of large seals two dies were used—one for the front, or obverse , the other for the back, or reverse—so that when complete the seal was similar to a coin or medal. In the earlier seals pure white beeswax was used as the medium on which to impress the seal, and at other times this was coloured—green, red, brown,

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THE JOUST AND TOURNAMENT.

THE JOUST AND TOURNAMENT.

It was natural that men whose profession it was to bear arms should engage in friendly contests with one another, and in this way acquire skill in arms as well as indulge in a manly pastime. When only two combatants fought, it was called jousting . If a friendly trial of skill only were intended, the lances were blunt, and if swords were used it was only with the edge which could not inflict a wound on a well-armed man. This was the joute à plaisance . If the combatants fought with sharp weapons

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ENGLISH ARCHERS.

ENGLISH ARCHERS.

In Saxon times, little value was placed upon the bow as a weapon, but, after the decisive part it played at Hastings, its use was practised generally. From early times, archers carried long stakes, sharpened at both ends, and when they took up their position on the battlefield, they stuck them into the ground before them, with the points sloping outward, to break up a cavalry charge which might be made against them. In the 12th century, English archers became renowned for their skill, and Richar

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EARLY CANNON.

EARLY CANNON.

The discovery of gunpowder, which, by degrees, totally changed military tactics and the constitution of armies, was the event that most powerfully influenced warfare in the Middle Ages. Very little is known about its actual invention. It is supposed that Greek fire, which was used with such terrifying and destructive effect in warfare, particularly in sieges, consisted of the three ingredients of gunpowder, with resin and naphtha in addition. Roger Bacon, an English friar, discovered the secret

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A 15th CENTURY SHIP.

A 15th CENTURY SHIP.

PLATE 27. This engraving, taken from Rouse’s MS. ‘Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick’ (British Museum, Julius E. iv.), of the latter part of the 15th century (1485) gives a very clear representation of a ship and its boat. The Earl is setting out on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In the foreground, we see him, with his pilgrim’s staff in hand, stepping into the boat which is to carry him to his ship, lying at anchor in the harbour. The costume of the sailors is illustrated by the men in

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BRASSES.

BRASSES.

As many references have been made in this work to “Brasses,” and a number of the illustrations of armour and costumes are taken from them, it is fitting that a section should be devoted to so important a series of national records. Monumental Brasses are plates of brass, embedded in stone slabs, which have been placed over graves in the floors of our churches and cathedrals. Their use began early in the thirteenth century, and took the place of the carved stone slabs, which had, up to this time,

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HERALDRY.

HERALDRY.

Heraldry has been called the “shorthand of history,” and “the critical desire for accuracy, which fortunately seems to have been the keynote of research” during recent times, necessitates an inquiry into the history and practice of Heraldry, which played such an important part in the life of the Middle Ages. It is not believed that the Normans at the Conquest bore any “arms” on their shields. There are certain markings shown on the shields in the Bayeux Tapestry, but they were probably bands and

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THE TUDOR NAVY.

THE TUDOR NAVY.

Henry VII. founded the first English permanent dockyard at Portsmouth, and built in 1495 the first dry dock in England. During his reign 85 vessels at least were added to the Navy, some being purchased, some taken as prizes, and others (about 46) built. The first great ship in mediæval times was the Great Harry , built by Henry VII. in 1488, and costing £14,000; but up to this time vessels had no portholes from which the guns could be fired. This was the invention of a ship-builder of Brest, nam

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PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

During the Plantagenet period, for the first times the effigies of English sovereigns give authentic representation of regal costume in form and colour (having been painted to imitate the actual clothing). The Royal Robes of Henry II., Richard I., and John consist of (1) an undergarment with close-fitting sleeves; (2) a tunic-like garment with loose sleeves, called a dalmatica , which is girded round the waist by a belt; (3) a mantle, richly embroidered, covering all. The costume of the nobles w

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MAIL ARMOUR.

MAIL ARMOUR.

Pure mail armour, i.e. , armour worn without additional defence over the mail but the heaume, was in use from 1150 A.D. to 1300 A.D. , but its use was finally discontinued about 1350 A.D. There were several kinds of mail, and different ways of representing it on effigies, brasses, etc., viz. : ( a ) Mail apparently formed of rings or mailles , sewn on to a leather garment by the edge only, and arranged so that one ring overlapped the next. ( b ) Mail formed of rows of rings sewn on strips of lin

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EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.

The Transition. —At the close of the Norman period, the quality of the masonry was very good, and the workmen had learnt how to economise their materials. The improvement continued until the work reached a high degree of perfection. The mouldings, the ornament, the sculpture, and all other details are of a lighter style, and more highly finished. The architecture that remains of this period is aptly termed “Transitional.” The transition, from the round-arched Norman style, with its heavy and mas

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MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR.

MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR.

Arms and armour, with all the accompaniments of chivalry, during the fourteenth century reached a pitch of great splendour. The French Wars and the extravagance of costume at the Courts of Edward III. and Richard II. encouraged this. From the constant use of armour in the wars and in the tournament, many modifications were found necessary to render it more comfortable and also more thoroughly protective. Towards the end of the thirteenth century additions had been made to the mail for the latter

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MALE COSTUMES.

MALE COSTUMES.

The effigies of King Henry IV. and his Queen at Canterbury are some of the most splendid of our royal effigies, uniting richness, grandeur, and simplicity. The King’s crown is particularly remarkable for its magnificence (Fig. 1.) Since there had been very great extravagance in costume during the reign of Richard II., when he came to the throne Henry revived the sumptuary laws of his predecessors regulating the quality of the clothing to be worn by the various classes of his subjects. Four years

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FEMALE COSTUMES.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

Little change was made in the costumes of ladies during these periods, but there was a more wonderful variety in the head-dresses—many of them striking and even picturesque—than during any other century of English history. In the early part of this period the crespine or golden net caul, into which the hair was gathered (Fig. 12), partly covered by a veil, was very common. The côte-hardi was still very popular, but many ladies wore the full outer garment or mantle, called the houppelande , butto

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PLATE ARMOUR.

PLATE ARMOUR.

The various modifications in plate armour were such as were found necessary for greater ease or for more perfect protection, and were of a progressive character. In order to prevent confusion it is customary to divide this period of 200 years into five lesser periods, the first three being roughly coincident with the Lancastrian and Yorkist Periods, the remaining two with the Tudor Period. 1st Period: 1410-1430. 2nd Period: 1430-1450. 3rd Period: 1450—1500. 1st Period : 1410-1450. This is also k

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DECORATED ARCHITECTURE.

DECORATED ARCHITECTURE.

A.D. 1300 to 1377. Reigns of Edward I., II., and III. The transition from the Early English, or Lancet style, to the Decorated was much more gradual than from Norman to Early English, so gradual that it is impossible to draw a line where one style ceases and another begins. There can be no doubt that in some parts of the kingdom, Early English was in use at the same time that, in other districts, the Decorated style was becoming general, and thus the terms adopted to denote the different periods

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MALE COSTUMES.

MALE COSTUMES.

Henry VII. The male costumes of Henry VII.’s reign were not brilliant, and Henry himself, on account of his miserly disposition, was very soberly dressed. His conduct in this respect naturally influenced the whole nation, though there were exquisites at this time, as there always will be, who dressed in a very extreme fashion. Strutt says that at the end of the fifteenth century “the dress of the English was exceedingly fantastical and absurd, insomuch that it was even difficult to distinguish o

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FEMALE COSTUMES.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

Henry VII. The chief article of attire in female costume was the robe, which continued to be short waisted, and was worn with sleeves either of the variety now known as Bishop’s sleeves or wide and confined at intervals from the elbow to the wrist. The waist was small, and the neck was cut square. Stomachers, belts and buckles, or girdles with a long pendant in front were also worn. A warm cloth hood was worn folded back from the face over the head in thick pleats behind, the edges being embroid

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PLATE ARMOUR.

PLATE ARMOUR.

(About 1500 A.D. to about 1600 A.D. ) 4th Period , about 1500 A.D. to about 1526 A.D. —Armour had now reached a great pitch of perfection. How perfect it was may be judged from the fact that in many of the battles very few knights were slain. Their greatest danger lay in being unhorsed and ridden over, and of being slain while lying helpless on the ground. After a battle, the camp followers and servants of the victors flocked about the men-at-arms who had been overthrown, and slew most of them b

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PERPENDICULAR ARCHITECTURE.

PERPENDICULAR ARCHITECTURE.

The Transition from Decorated to Perpendicular architecture is not so apparent at first sight as between the other styles; but it may be traced quite clearly. The change was seen in the choir and transepts of Gloucester Cathedral before the middle of the fourteenth century. This Transition begins the decline of Gothic architecture from the perfect and symmetrical Decorated to the style which showed more elaborate and richer work, but was wanting in the elegant effect for which the Decorated Peri

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MALE COSTUMES.

MALE COSTUMES.

James I. Little change was made in the early part of this reign from the costumes worn at the end of Elizabeth’s reign. The peascod doublet, the conical-crowned hat, and the large trunk hose, also called “ bombasted breeches ,” slashed, quilted, stuffed, and laced, were worn as before. (Fig. 10.) The cowardly despotism of James led him to guard his person, at all times awkward and ungainly, with quilted and padded clothing in order that it might be dagger-proof. The “great round abominable breec

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FEMALE COSTUMES.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

James I. The female costume of this reign presents few variations from that in use at the end of Elizabeth’s reign. The portrait of Anne of Denmark, Queen of James I. (Pl. 49 , Fig. 1), in the general character of the dress, resembles that of Queen Elizabeth painted by Holbein. The enormous farthingale was worn throughout this reign by the nobility, the ruffs and collars worn at this time by the ladies being generally stiffened with yellow starch, like those of the gentleman. “The fondness of la

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ARMS AND ARMOUR.

ARMS AND ARMOUR.

(To end of CHARLES II.) James I. During the reign of Elizabeth the decay of the use of armour had set in on account of the enormous weight and unwieldly nature of the harness. It prevented free action, and, indeed, seriously crippled the physical frames of many of the wearers. The increasing use of fire arms also tended to hasten the disuse of armour, for it became difficult to make plates that would be sufficiently strong to oppose a bullet, unless the armour were made of great thickness. By th

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MALE COSTUMES.

MALE COSTUMES.

The reign of Anne (a Stuart), is taken with those of the early Hanoverians, as the costumes of the three reigns were so similar. Anne and George I. With the former of these reigns, all the chivalric costume except the sword disappeared, the latter still completing the full dress of the Court of St. James’. Planché, in his “History of British Costume,” very tersely describes the costume of the gentlemen of these reigns:— “Square-cut coats and long-flapped waistcoats with pockets in them, the latt

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FEMALE COSTUMES.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

At Anne’s accession little change was made in the costumes of ladies, as the Queen was of too retiring a disposition to introduce any originality in that direction. In 1711 Addison, in the “Spectator,” devoted a whole number to the subject of ladies’ head-dress, commencing with a declaration “that there is not so variable a thing in nature,” adding, “within my own memory I have known it rise and fall about 30 degrees. About ten years ago it shot up to a very great height, insomuch that the femal

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MALE COSTUMES.

MALE COSTUMES.

King George III. was very young when he came to the throne, and he was retiring and modest in his personal habits, so that he did not set the fashion in any extravagant direction. The nobility and gentry started all that was new in the fashions without waiting for the royal sanction to their flippancies and extravagances. Both ladies and gentlemen dressed simply at first, Fig. 1 being the type of the male costume of the time. It was only remarkable for the great quantity of lace with which the c

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FEMALE COSTUMES.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

Both George III. and his wife were decorous and retiring in their habits, and during their reign the fashions were started and maintained by the nobility and gentry of their Court. The latter “did not wait for the royal sanction to their flippancies, and their taste or want of taste ran riot during this reign to an extent that equalled the absurdities of any previous period, and which makes the history of fashion during that time more varied than that of any similar length of time.” At the comme

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THE MONASTIC ORDERS.

THE MONASTIC ORDERS.

PLATE 55. 1. The Benedictines (Fig. 1) are the most ancient of the Monastic Orders, and have always been the most learned. They were founded by St. Benedict in Italy about A.D. 529, as a monastery for 12 monks, in order that they might live, in a religious community, a Christian life with lofty ideals. Originally, St. Benedict’s idea was not to found an Order whose branches should extend throughout Europe as one organisation, but rather that the various houses should be independent of one anothe

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GENERAL PLAN OF A MONASTERY.

GENERAL PLAN OF A MONASTERY.

PLATE 56. The Abbeys and Monasteries of the Benedictines and the Orders founded from them, with the exception of the Carthusians, were built on the same general plan. The Church itself was, of course, the principal of the monastic buildings, and the most important part of the Church was the Presbytery , with the High Altar and the Choir. The Church was always cruciform and the Presbytery was the eastern arm. To it only the monks who were in priestly orders had access. The Choir, or Quire, freque

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THE CANONS.

THE CANONS.

A great monastic family was known under the name of Augustinians, from St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, who, it is said, established monastic communities in Africa, and gave them a “rule,” or method of life. In the middle of the ninth century all the clergy—priests, canons, clerks, etc.—who had not entered the monastic ranks were incorporated into one great Order to observe the rule of St. Augustine. The Canons Regular, as they were called, were the clergy of Cathedral and Collegiate Churches, li

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MILITARY MONASTIC ORDERS.

MILITARY MONASTIC ORDERS.

The military Orders, consisting of men who combined the religious duties of monks and the military exercises of knights, were the Knights Hospitallers and the Knights Templars. The Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem (Pl. 58 , Fig. 1) were originally not a military Order. This Order took its name and was founded at an hospital in Jerusalem by the merchants of Amalfi, in Italy, for the purpose of affording hospitality to the Pilgrims coming to the Holy Land. It was dedicated to St. John

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ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUMES AND VESTMENTS.

ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUMES AND VESTMENTS.

There were two great divisions of Mediæval Ecclesiastics, the Major Orders and the Minor Orders. The Major Orders included the Archbishop, the Bishop, the Priest, the Deacon or Gospeller, and the Sub-deacon, or Patterner, as Chaucer calls him. The Minor Orders comprised the Acolyte (symbol, a candle), the Exorcist (a holy water vessel), the Doorkeeper (a key), the Lector (a key), and in some cases the Sexton. In the monastic times all these had the shaven crown or tonsure . For many centuries ec

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PILGRIMS.

PILGRIMS.

The fashion for going on pilgrimage appears to have sprung up in the fourteenth century, but we hear of it at a much earlier time than this. Christian pilgrimages began in visits to the scenes of Our Lord’s early life. As the custom grew, facilities were offered to lighten the journey. Adventurous shipowners organised a kind of service, so that pilgrims could travel to the Holy Land viâ Rome. When the journey was made on land, the pilgrims took advantage of the hospitals and hostels which were f

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