Cavity-Nesting Birds Of North American Forests - free ebook by Keith E. Evans

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Cavity-Nesting Birds Of North American Forests

Keith E. Evans

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Cavity-Nesting Birds of North American Forests

Cavity-Nesting Birds of North American Forests

Virgil E. Scott Denver Wildlife Research Center Keith E. Evans North Central Forest Experiment Station David R. Patton Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Charles P. Stone Denver Wildlife Research Center Illustrated by Arthur Singer Agriculture Handbook 511 November 1977 Forest Service U.S. Department of Agriculture For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock No. 001-000-03726-9 For sale by the Superintendent of Documen

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PREFACE

PREFACE

This Handbook is the result of a cooperative effort between the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Authors Scott and Stone are wildlife research biologists with the Fish and Wildlife Service’s Denver Wildlife Research Center. Scott is stationed in Fort Collins, Colorado. Authors Evans and Patton are principal wildlife biologists with the Forest Service’s North Central Forest Experiment Station and Rocky Mountain For

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Black-bellied whistling duck

Black-bellied whistling duck

Habitat: Black-bellied whistling ducks (tree ducks) are found regularly in southern Texas and erratically elsewhere. Open woodlands, groves or thicket borders where ebony, mesquite, retama, huisache, and several species of cacti are dominant in freshwater habitat are preferred (Oberholser 1974, Meanley and Meanley 1958). Range extensions have been facilitated by flooding and impoundments. Nest: Natural cavities in trees such as live oaks, ebony, willow, mesquite, and hackberry are preferred, but

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Wood duck

Wood duck

Habitat: Wood ducks are associated with bottomland hardwood forests where trees are large enough to provide nesting cavities and where water areas provide food and cover requirements (McGilvrey 1968). Requirements may be met in several important forest types, all of which must be flooded during the early nesting season: (1) southern flood plain, (2) red maple, (3) central flood plain, (4) temporarily flooded oak-hickory, and (5) northern bottomland hardwoods. Nest: Optimum natural cavities are 2

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Common goldeneye

Common goldeneye

Habitat: The breeding range of the common goldeneye generally coincides with the boreal coniferous forest in North America (Johnsgard 1975, Bellrose 1976). In a Minnesota study, 87 percent of breeding goldeneyes were found on large, sand-bottomed fish lakes (Johnson 1967), while in New Brunswick, this species preferred water areas with marshy shores and adjacent stands of old hardwoods (Carter 1958). In Maine, nests are found in mature hardwoods adjacent to lakes with rocky shores, hard bottoms,

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Barrow’s goldeneye

Barrow’s goldeneye

Habitat: Barrow’s goldeneyes attain their highest breeding population levels in western North America on moderately alkaline lakes of small to medium size in parkland areas. Open water is a necessity throughout the range, but frequently goldeneyes favor a dense growth of submerged aquatics such as sago pondweed and widgeon grass. The abundance of aquatic invertebrates may be more important than nesting cavities in determining distribution (Johnsgard 1975). Nest: This species is not an obligate t

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Bufflehead

Bufflehead

Habitat: Buffleheads favor small ponds and lakes in open woodlands (Godfrey 1966). In British Columbia, most nesting is in the interior Douglas-fir zone while poplar communities are usually used in Alberta, and ponderosa pine types are preferred in California. Scattered breeding records in Oregon, Wyoming, and Idaho are primarily in subalpine lodgepole pine, and in Alaska (Erskine 1971) Engelmann spruce and cottonwood stands are used for nesting. Nest: Of 204 nests observed from California to Al

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Hooded merganser

Hooded merganser

Habitat: Although hooded mergansers prefer wooded, clear water streams, they also use the wooded shorelines of lakes. Drainage of swamps and river bottoms, removal of snags, and other human activities have been detrimental to this species as they have been to wood ducks. Hooded mergansers are more easily disturbed by man and far more sensitive to a decline in water quality than are wood ducks. Breeding densities often seem more related to food abundance and availability than to nesting cavities

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Common merganser

Common merganser

Habitat: Common mergansers prefer cool, clear waters of northern boreal or western forests, although at times they have nested as far south as North Carolina and Mexico. Ponds associated with the upper portions of rivers in northern forested regions are often used (Johnsgard 1975). As with hooded mergansers, clear water is needed for foraging. Nest: Although hollow trees are the usual location, ground nests under thick cover or in rock crevices are not uncommon. A wide variety of other locations

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Turkey vulture

Turkey vulture

Habitat: Turkey vultures soar over most of the forest types of the United States and southern Canada, with the exception of the pine and spruce-fir stands in the extreme northeastern United States. In search of food this common carrion eater makes use of the forest openings created by roads, powerline rights-of-way, clearcuts, and abandoned fields. Nest: Preferred nest sites are often at a premium because of the bird’s large size and the shortage of large snags. The smell of carrion around the n

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Black vulture

Black vulture

Habitat: The black vulture is found in the southern Great Plains, southeastern pine forests, oak-hickory forests, and intermediate oak-pine forests. It is a more southern species than the turkey vulture. Nest: Like turkey vultures, black vultures nest under a wide variety of conditions. They use the nest site as found without adding nesting materials (Hoxie 1886, Bent 1937). Hollow stumps or standing trees are favorite nesting sites when they are available; otherwise, eggs are laid on the ground

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Peregrine falcon

Peregrine falcon

Habitat: The peregrine falcon is found in tundra regions, northern boreal forests, lodgepole pine and subalpine fir, spruce-fir, southern hardwood-conifer, cold desert shrubs, and prairies—mainly in open country and along streams. It is also found around salt and freshwater marshes (Fyfe 1969, Hickey and Anderson 1969, Nelson 1969). This species is currently classified as “Endangered” in the United States. Nest: Although the peregrine falcon is currently considered a cliff-nester, records indica

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Merlin

Merlin

Habitat: The merlin is usually found in open stands of boreal forest, Douglas-fir—sitka spruce, poplar-aspen-birch-willow, ponderosa pine—Douglas-fir, oak woodlands, and saltwater marshes (Craighead and Craighead 1940, Lawrence 1949, Brown and Weston 1961). Nest: Like the peregrine falcon, most cavity nests for the merlin were reported before 1910, when it was nesting in cavities of poplars, cottonwoods, and American linden trees (Bendire 1892, Houseman 1894, Dippie 1895). The merlin usually use

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American kestrel

American kestrel

Habitat: The American kestrel is the smallest and most common falcon in North America, occurring in open and semi-open country throughout the continent. In the Rocky Mountain region, kestrels are most abundant on the plains, but do nest up to 8,000 feet elevation in the Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, and pinyon-juniper forest types (Scott and Patton 1975, Bailey and Niedrach 1965). They have been observed on the highest peaks after the nesting season (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Nest: Nest sites va

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Barn owl

Barn owl

Habitat: The barn owl inhabits most of the forest types in the United States except the higher elevation types in the Rocky Mountains. They are usually considered uncommon residents because their silent nocturnal habits render them undetectable by most casual observers. Barn owls are also birds of the open country, and adapt readily to areas occupied by man (Marti 1974). Nest: Before the coming of man, barn owls nested in natural cavities in trees, cliffs, or arroyo walls, but now they also nest

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Screech owl

Screech owl

Habitat: This small owl is found in most forest types below 8,000 feet elevation throughout the United States. Screech owls prefer widely spaced trees, interspersed with grassy open spaces, for hunting. Meadow edges and fruit orchards are favored throughout the eastern United States. Nest: Like other owls, the male screech owl defends a nesting and feeding territory. Maples, apples, and sycamores with natural cavities or pines with woodpecker holes are preferred in the East (Bent 1938). Along th

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Whiskered owl

Whiskered owl

Habitat: The small whiskered owl is generally found in the dense oak or oak-pine forests of southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and into Mexico. Nest: Nests have been reported in both natural cavities and old woodpecker holes located in oak, cottonwood, willow, walnut, sycamore, and juniper trees (Bent 1938). Karalus and Eckert (1974) suggest that white oak is one of the favorite nest sites, and that these small owls prefer to nest in cavities in the limbs of trees rather than in the trun

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Flammulated owl

Flammulated owl

Habitat: The flammulated owl normally is not found in cutover forests or in pure stands of conifers but requires some understory or intermixture of oaks in the forest (Phillips et al. 1964). It occurs in ponderosa pine, spruce-fir, lodgepole pine, aspen, and pinyon-juniper forest types (Grinnell and Miller 1944, Karalus and Eckert 1974). Nest: Nests are usually located in abandoned flicker or other woodpecker holes, but flammulated owls may take over occupied nests (Karalus and Eckert 1974). The

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Hawk owl

Hawk owl

Habitat: The hawk owl inhabits much of the northern poplar, spruce, pine, birch, tamarac, and willow forests where such forests are broken by small prairie burns and bogs (Henderson 1919). Nest: Hawk owls usually nest in natural cavities or in enlarged holes of pileated woodpeckers and flickers. Nests have been reported in birch, spruce, tamarac, poplar snags (Henderson 1919, 1925, Bent 1938), and occasionally on cliffs or in crow’s nests. Food: This owl hunts extensively during the day and feed

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Pygmy owl

Pygmy owl

Habitat: The pygmy owl is found in most of the western wooded areas from western Canada into Mexico. It is probably most abundant in open coniferous or mixed forests and is reported specifically in ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, and fir-redwood-cedar forests. Nest: This owl usually nests in old woodpecker holes ranging in size from those constructed by hairy woodpeckers up to and including those of the flickers from 8 to 75 feet above ground (Bent 1938). Food: Mice and large insects are probably

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Ferruginous owl

Ferruginous owl

Habitat: This uncommon small owl inhabits the saguaro cactus in Sonoran deserts and wooded river bottoms near the Mexican border. Nest: Nests are in abandoned woodpecker holes in mesquite, cottonwood, and saguaro cactus. Nest heights range from 10 to 40 feet above ground (Bent 1938, Karalus and Eckert 1974). Food: The diet of the ferruginous owl consists primarily of small birds; however, insects, small mammals, invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians are occasionally eaten (Karalus and Eckert 1

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Elf owl

Elf owl

Habitat: The elf owl is restricted to the southwestern United States where it is found primarily in the saguaro cactus deserts, bottomland sycamore and cottonwood stands and in conifer-hardwood forests at high elevations. Nest: One of the most common nest sites of the elf owl is in old woodpecker holes in saguaro cactus. It has also been reported nesting in cavities in sycamore, walnut, mesquite, and pine trees (Ligon 1967, Bent 1938, Hayes and James 1963). Cavities are usually located in snags

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Barred owl

Barred owl

Habitat: Barred owls are common in southern swamps and moist river bottoms of the Midwest, and less common but widespread in northern forests. These owls are found in all of the eastern forest types. Although they use white pine, these large owls prefer oak woods and mixed hardwood-conifer stands (Nicholls and Warner 1972). Preferred oak woods contain dead and dying trees for cavities and are free of dense understory, thus facilitating unobstructed flying and attacking of prey. Nest: Natural cav

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Spotted owl

Spotted owl

Habitat: This uncommon owl occurs in most old-age conifer associations in the western United States. Forsman (1976) located 123 pairs in Oregon, and 95 percent occupied undisturbed old-growth conifer forests. Karalus and Eckert (1974) described the habitat as being dense fir forests, heavily wooded cliffsides, narrow canyons, and sometimes stream valleys well stocked with oak, sycamore, willow, cottonwood, and alder. Nest: Forsman (1976) found spotted owls nesting in the holes of living old-grow

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Boreal owl

Boreal owl

Habitat: This northern owl is normally found in the mixed conifer-hardwood forests of Canada (Peterson 1961). One juvenile reported in Colorado during August suggests that this owl may nest in the southern Rocky Mountains (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Boreal owls are confined to evergreen woods and dense alder, white pine, and spruce forests. Nest: Old flicker and pileated woodpecker holes are preferred, usually at a height of 10 to 25 feet (Fisher 1893, Preble 1908, Tufts 1925, Lawrence 1932). Co

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Saw-whet owl

Saw-whet owl

Habitat: Saw-whet owls are small, nocturnal hunters of the deep north woods. They nest in the Rocky Mountains up to about 11,000 feet (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). This widely distributed owl nests in most of the forest types throughout the northern half of the United States, but only rarely do they nest as far south as central Missouri. Nest: These small owls prefer to nest in old flicker or other woodpecker holes (Bent 1938). Nesting habitat may be improving in areas where Dutch Elm disease has

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Chimney swift

Chimney swift

Habitat: Chimney swifts are found throughout the eastern half of the United States in wooded and open areas. They have adopted to man-made structures and are no longer dependent upon hollow trees for nesting and roosting. Nest: Originally chimney swifts nested in hollow trees, especially sycamores. They now use chimneys, barn silos, cisterns, and wells (Pearson 1936). Their nests are made of twigs, which are glued to a vertical surface with saliva to form a “half-saucer” (Forbush and May 1939).

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Vaux’s swift

Vaux’s swift

Habitat: This small swift is most likely to be found in river valleys among dense Douglas-fir and redwood forests in the western United States. Nest: Nests are usually located in tall hollow snags in burned or logged areas and are made from twigs (Peterson 1961, Robbins et al. 1966). Nests have been reported in unused chimneys and under building eaves (Bent 1940). Food: Flying insects such as mosquitoes, gnats, flies, and small beetles captured in flight probably make up the entire diet (Bent 19

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Coppery-tailed trogon

Coppery-tailed trogon

Habitat: Coppery-tailed trogons can be found along riparian streams and in pine-oak forests in Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and southern Texas. Nest: Nests are found 12 to 40 feet above the ground in deserted large woodpecker holes (Bent 1940). Cottonwood and sycamore snags are usually selected for nests. Of the 34 species in the family Trogonidae, this is the only one that breeds in the United States (Wetmore 1964). Food: There is little information on the food of these birds, but apparent

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Common flicker

Common flicker

Habitat: Flickers are commonly found near large trees in open woodlands, fields, and meadows throughout North America. In winter, they occasionally seek shelter in coniferous woods or swamps. Previously three species were recognized: the yellow-shafted of the East, the red-shafted of the West, and the gilded of the southwestern desert. These are now considered a single species. Nest: Flickers prefer to nest in open country or in lightly wooded suburban areas where park-like situations are plenti

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Pileated Woodpecker

Pileated Woodpecker

Habitat: Forests of heavy timber and secondary growth consisting of mixed deciduous and coniferous trees are the preferred year-round habitat for pileated woodpeckers. These large woodpeckers have become less abundant over much of their former range where extensive agriculture or logging practices have eliminated large tracts of old growth forests. In the Ozarks, they are plentiful wherever extensive forests remain, preferring areas where past cutting practices (early 1900’s) have left scattered

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Red-bellied woodpecker

Red-bellied woodpecker

Habitat: Red-bellied woodpeckers are common throughout southeastern forest types. This bird has habits similar to those of the red-headed woodpecker, except that the red-headed prefers open woodlands, farm yards, and field edges whereas the red-bellied prefers larger expanses of forest. Bailey and Niedrach (1965) reported that the red-bellied woodpecker is extending its range westward up the river valleys of the Great Plains. Nest: These woodpeckers most commonly excavate nest holes in dead limb

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Golden-fronted woodpecker

Golden-fronted woodpecker

Habitat: The golden-fronted woodpecker’s preferred habitat is mesquite and riparian woodlands in Texas and Oklahoma. Cooke (1888) listed this species as an abundant resident of the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas, in 1884. Nest: Nesting behavior of the golden-fronted is similar to that of the red-bellied woodpecker (Pearson 1936). Tall trees of pecan, oak, and mesquite are the major species used for nesting (Bent 1939). Occasionally fence posts, telephone poles, and bird boxes are used (Reed 1965

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Gila woodpecker

Gila woodpecker

Habitat: This woodpecker is found on desert mesas in association with creosote bush, mesquite, and saguaro cactus from central Arizona to edges of adjacent states. It is also common in river bottoms and in foothill canyons among cottonwoods, willows, and sycamores. Nest: The Gila woodpecker excavates holes in saguaro cacti for nests. Cottonwoods, willows, and mesquites are also used at higher elevations (Bent 1939, Ligon 1961). Food: The diet of the Gila woodpecker consists of ants, beetles, gra

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Red-headed woodpecker

Red-headed woodpecker

Habitat: Red-headed woodpeckers prefer to nest and roost in open areas. Farmyards, field edges, and timber stands that have been treated with herbicides or burned are preferred habitats. Redheads are attracted to areas with many dead snags and lush herbaceous ground cover, but not to woods with closed canopies. They are found throughout the East and along wooded streams of the prairie to eastern Colorado and Wyoming. Competition for nesting space is often intensive where starlings are abundant (

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Acorn woodpecker

Acorn woodpecker

Habitat: The acorn woodpecker is a common resident of mixed oak-pine woodland and adjacent open grassland from Oregon along the Pacific Coast to the southwestern United States. Nest: Acorn woodpeckers are communal nesters, and the young are fed by the entire group (Wetmore 1964). They usually excavate holes in ponderosa pine, but live and dead oaks of various species, sycamore, cottonwood, and willow are also used for nests. Their old holes are important for secondary cavity nesters such as smal

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Lewis’ woodpecker

Lewis’ woodpecker

Habitat: Open or parklike ponderosa pine forest is probably the major breeding habitat of the Lewis’ woodpecker. These woodpeckers also nest in burned over stands of Douglas-fir, mixed conifer, pinyon-juniper, riparian, and oak woodlands (Bock 1970). Nest: The Lewis’ woodpecker generally excavates its own nest cavity, but will use natural cavities or holes excavated in previous years. Bock (1970) summarized the following nest data: height range 5 to 170 feet; 47 nests in dead stubs and 17 in liv

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Yellow-bellied sapsucker

Yellow-bellied sapsucker

Habitat: The yellow-bellied sapsucker (sometimes called red-naped) is most abundant along streams in mixed hardwood-conifer forests. It is also found in ponderosa pine, aspen, mixed conifer, lodgepole pine, and in mixed stands of fir-larch-pine. Nest: Yellow-bellied sapsuckers usually nest in cavities in snags or live trees with rotten heartwood. Aspen seems to be the preferred species (Howell 1952, Lawrence 1967, Kilham 1971), but nests have also been found in ponderosa pine, birch, elm, butter

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Williamson’s sapsucker

Williamson’s sapsucker

Habitat: This sapsucker prefers mixed conifer-hardwood forests of the Rocky Mountain region but also inhabits the subalpine spruce-fir-lodgepole zone, and ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and aspen forests. Nest: The choice of tree species for nesting seems to differ between regions. Bent (1939), Packard (1945), Bailey and Niedrach (1965), Burleigh (1972), and Jackman (1975) reported Williamson’s sapsuckers nesting primarily in conifers. Other authors (Rasmussen 1941, Hubbard 1965, Tatschl 1967, Lig

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Hairy woodpecker

Hairy woodpecker

Habitat: Hairy woodpeckers are residents of nearly all types of forest from central Canada south. Nest: Live trees in open woodlands are preferred nesting sites of hairy woodpeckers. This species makes a nest entrance that exactly fits its head and body size (1.6 to 1.8 inches). Because this size also seems very convenient for starlings and flying squirrels, hairy woodpeckers are often troubled with invasions (Kilham 1968a, Lawrence 1967). Hairy woodpeckers will often excavate the entrance so it

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Downy woodpecker

Downy woodpecker

Habitat: Downy woodpeckers inhabit most of the wooded parts of North America. They are absent or rare in the arid deserts, and not common in the densely forested regions. Favorite habitat includes open woodland, hammocks, orchards, roadside hedges, farmyards, and urban areas (Bent 1939). Occasionally, these birds nest at elevations above 9,000 feet in the central Rockies (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Most populations are considered nonmigratory; however, there is some movement from north to south

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Ladder-backed woodpecker

Ladder-backed woodpecker

Habitat: Ladder-backed woodpeckers are commonly found in mesquite and deciduous woodland along streams in desert regions of the Southwest. Nest: Ladder-backed woodpecker nests are located in a variety of trees such as mesquite, screw bean, palo verde, hackberry, china tree, willow, cottonwood, walnut and oak, usually from 2 to 30 feet above ground. Saguaro cactus, yucca stalks, and branches are sometimes used for nests, as are telephone poles and fence posts (Bent 1939, Phillips et al. 1964). Fo

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Nuttall’s woodpecker

Nuttall’s woodpecker

Habitat: This western woodpecker is an inhabitant of oak woodlands, riparian woods, and chapparal west of the Sierras in California. Nest: From a literature survey and personal observations, Miller and Bock (1972) summarized the following nest-tree data for 57 nests: 23 percent in oak, 19 percent in willow, 18 percent in sycamore, 16 percent in cottonwood, and 12 percent in alder. Cavities were excavated in dead limbs and trunks of trees, from 3 to 45 feet above ground. Food: About 80 percent of

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Arizona woodpecker

Arizona woodpecker

Habitat: Arizona woodpeckers are found in live oak and oak-pine forests and canyons from 4,000 to 7,500 feet in Arizona and New Mexico. Nest: The Arizona woodpecker excavates holes in dead branches of living trees, primarily walnuts, oaks, maples, and sycamores. One nest was reportedly located in a mescal stalk (Bent 1939). Food: This woodpecker’s diet probably consists largely of the adult and larval stages of insects, with some fruit and acorns, but few details of food items have been reported

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Red-cockaded woodpecker

Red-cockaded woodpecker

Habitat: Red-cockaded woodpeckers need open, mature (at least 60 year old) pine forest with a high fire occurrence (Bent 1939, Jackson 1971, Hopkins and Lynn 1971). Pine species used during breeding season include: longleaf (Crosby 1971), slash (Lowry 1960), loblolly (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949), and shortleaf (Sutton 1967). Red-cockaded woodpeckers are on the national “Endangered species” list. Nest: These woodpeckers prefer living pines infected with red heart rot for nesting. These trees hav

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White-headed woodpecker

White-headed woodpecker

Habitat: Open ponderosa pine forest from Washington to central California is the primary habitat of the white-headed woodpecker, but it also occurs in sugar pine, Jeffrey pine, and red and white fir forests (Grinnell and Miller 1944). Nest: This woodpecker seems to prefer dead pines, but nests have also been found in live and dead fir, oak, and aspen. White-headed woodpeckers usually excavate a new nest cavity every year and often excavate several holes before selecting one to nest in (Bent 1939

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Black-backed three-toed woodpecker

Black-backed three-toed woodpecker

Habitat: The conifer forests of the north are preferred, but this three-toed woodpecker is not abundant even in its favorite habitat. Forest types include mixed conifer, lodgepole pine, white fir, subalpine fir, tamarack swamps, boreal spruce-balsam fir, Douglas-fir, and mixed hardwood-conifer. Nest: This species usually excavates its cavities in snags or live trees with dead heartwood, especially in areas that have been burned or logged (Bent 1939). Nests are usually in spruce, balsam fir, pine

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Northern three-toed woodpecker

Northern three-toed woodpecker

Habitat: This highly beneficial woodpecker is most common in coniferous forests of the West, but does occur occasionally in the Northeast. Nest: The northern three-toed woodpecker excavates nest cavities each year in standing dead trees or in dead limbs of live trees with rotted heartwood (Jackman and Scott 1975). Their nest cavities have been reported in pine, aspen, spruce, and cedar trees (Bent 1939). In Arizona, we found two nests in ponderosa pine snags. Food: The northern three-toed woodpe

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Ivory-billed woodpecker

Ivory-billed woodpecker

Habitat: Cooke (1888) and Bent (1939) described the largest of the North American woodpeckers as rare, shy, and found only in the heaviest timber in virgin cypress and bottomland forest of the South. Tanner (1942) described ivory-billed woodpecker habitat as heavily forested and usually flooded alluvial land bordering rivers, made up of oaks, cypress, and green ash. The most recent sightings (between 5 and 10 pairs) have been made in bottomland hardwoods that have been cut over but still have so

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Sulphur-bellied flycatcher

Sulphur-bellied flycatcher

Habitat: The sulphur-bellied flycatcher is a common occupant of riparian habitat with sycamore trees in deep canyons from 5,000 to 7,500 feet elevation in the Huachuca Mountains of Arizona. Nest: Invariably the nest of this species, made from leaf stems (Peterson 1961), is built in a natural cavity in a large sycamore at a height between 20 and 50 feet above the ground. The cavity normally is a knothole where a large branch has broken off (Bent 1942). At least one member of each pair may return

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Great crested flycatcher

Great crested flycatcher

Habitat: Great crested flycatchers are common in deciduous and mixed woods east of the Rockies. They were originally a deep forest bird, but with increases in forest clearing and thinning operations, fewer and fewer cavities are available. They seem to be adapting well to less densely forested areas, areas treated with herbicides, and forest-field edge situations (Hespenheide 1971, Bent 1942). Nest: Great crested flycatchers use natural cavities or excavations made by other species. Nests are fo

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Wied’s crested flycatcher

Wied’s crested flycatcher

Habitat: Desert saguaros, deciduous woodlands and riparian vegetation in the Southwest are the preferred habitats of the Wied’s crested flycatcher. Nest: Nests made from twigs, weeds, and trash are built in abandoned woodpecker holes in saguaro cacti at a height from 5 to 20 feet above the ground. Sycamores, cottonwoods, and fence posts are used occasionally (Bent 1942). Food: The diet of this species is similar to that of other crested flycatchers, consisting mostly of beetles, flying insects,

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Ash-throated flycatcher

Ash-throated flycatcher

Habitat: The ash-throated flycatcher occupies dense mesquite thickets, oak groves, saguaro cactus, riparian vegetation, and pinyon-juniper forests. It ranges from Washington to the southwestern United States and Texas. Nest: The ash-throated flycatcher is not particularly specific in tree selection as long as it has a cavity. Woodpecker holes, exposed pipes, and nest boxes have been used. Mesquite, ash, oak, sycamore, juniper, and cottonwood are common nest trees (Bent 1942). Food: The diet of t

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Olivaceous flycatcher

Olivaceous flycatcher

Habitat: Olivaceous flycatchers are found in dense oak thickets, pinyon-juniper forests, and along canyon streams in Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Nest: Nests are located in natural cavities or abandoned woodpecker holes. Oaks are preferred, but nests also have been reported in ash and sycamore trees (Bent 1942). Food: Limited evidence on food habits of this species indicates that the major food items are small insects including grasshoppers, termites, mayflies, treehoppers, miscellaneous

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Western flycatcher

Western flycatcher

Habitat: Moist deciduous or coniferous forests and areas near running water with tall trees are favored by the western flycatcher (Grinnell and Miller 1944). Nest: Western flycatchers sometimes nest in cavities, but use a variety of nest sites. Davis et al. (1963) found four nests in natural cavities in willows and oaks, and six behind flaps of bark in sycamores and willows. Nests are often reported in natural rock crevices, on tree limbs and crotches, and on ledges of buildings (Bent 1942, Davi

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Violet-green swallow

Violet-green swallow

Habitat: Ponderosa pine affords the favorite habitat for violet-green swallows (Bailey and Niedrach 1965), but they are also found in aspen-willow and spruce-aspen forests. They prefer open or broken woods or the edges of dense forests. Nest: Violet-green swallows nest in holes, cavities, and crevices in a variety of situations. Where birds are abundant, the demand for nest sites is sometimes greater than the supply, and practically any available cavity may be used. These swallows have been repo

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Tree swallow

Tree swallow

Habitat: Tree swallows breed throughout North America from the northern half of the United States north to the limit of tree growth. They are migrants throughout the Central and Southern states and winter primarily in Central America. Nest: Tree swallows prefer to nest in natural cavities and old woodpecker holes—usually near water. The lack of natural cavities, competition for existing cavities, and the availability of nest boxes, have resulted in a shift in nesting preferences to nest boxes in

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Purple martin

Purple martin

Habitat: The natural nesting population of purple martins prefer open woodlands or cutover forests where suitable snags remain. Purple martins have been reported in oak, sycamore, ponderosa pine, Monterey pine, spruce, and fir forests of California (Grinnell and Miller 1944). In the Southwest, the purple martin breeds in the ponderosa pine belt and in the saguaro cactus desert. Nest: The western purple martin has not adapted to nesting in boxes as well as the eastern form (Bunch 1964), and much

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Black-capped chickadee

Black-capped chickadee

Habitat: Black-capped chickadees nest throughout southern Canada and the northern half of the United States. In Missouri, the black-capped chickadee generally nests north of the Missouri River and the Carolina chickadee nests south of the River. The breeding range extends farther south at higher elevations of the Rocky and Appalachian Mountain ranges than in non-mountainous areas. In Colorado, black-caps are most abundant in the ponderosa pine and aspen forests (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Nest:

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Carolina chickadee

Carolina chickadee

Habitat: The Carolina chickadee, which inhabits the southeastern forests, is a slightly smaller version of the black-capped chickadee. In Missouri, the Carolina chickadee nests south of the Missouri River throughout the Ozarks. Nest: The nesting habits of the black-capped and Carolina chickadees are quite similar. They occasionally nest in natural cavities or deserted holes of woodpeckers, but commonly excavate their own nest cavity in decaying wood of dead trunks or limbs of deciduous trees (Be

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Mexican chickadee

Mexican chickadee

Habitat: This species inhabits pine and spruce forests from 7,000 to 10,000 feet elevation just inside the United States in the Chiricahua Mountains of Arizona and the Animas Mountains of New Mexico (Phillips et al. 1964). Nest: Mexican chickadees excavate nest holes in dead trees or branches. One nest was found in a willow stub about 5 feet above the ground (Bent 1946). Food: No information on diet was found in the literature....

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Mountain chickadee

Mountain chickadee

Habitat: This common little chickadee can be found in most coniferous forests of the West from 6,000 to 11,000 feet (Bent 1946). Nest: Mountain chickadees usually nest in natural cavities or abandoned woodpecker holes, and probably do not excavate their own cavities if suitable ones are available (Bent 1946). Winternitz (1973) reported five nests in live aspen and one in a dead aspen, 6 to 15 feet above ground. In Arizona, we have found five nests in live aspen, three in aspen snags, two in pond

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Gray-headed chickadee

Gray-headed chickadee

Habitat: Broken forests or edges of aspen, willow, and spruce are the preferred habitat of the gray-headed chickadee. The range is limited to western Canada and Alaska. Nest: Old woodpecker holes or natural cavities are selected as nest sites. Bent (1946) reported one nest about 6 feet above ground in a spruce snag. Food: No information could be found in the literature on the food habits of the gray-headed chickadee, but the diet is probably similar to that of other chickadees....

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Boreal chickadee

Boreal chickadee

Habitat: The boreal chickadee is fairly common in northern forests of spruce, fir, aspen, and birch (McLaren 1975). Nest: Natural cavities, old woodpecker holes, or cavities excavated by the chickadees themselves are used for nesting (Bent 1946). McLaren (1975) found 22 nest holes, all in trees or snags with soft heartwood, and believed that softness of the core rather than a preference for a certain tree species is the determining factor in nest site selection. Food: In summer the boreal chicka

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Chestnut-backed chickadee

Chestnut-backed chickadee

Habitat: Coniferous forests of the humid coastal belt from Alaska to central California are the favorite habitat, but this bird is also found in adjacent deciduous woodlands and along streams (Peterson 1961, Grinnell and Miller 1944). Nest: Nests of this species are in abandoned woodpecker holes or in cavities excavated by the bird itself. Nests have been found in pine, oak, and Douglas-fir snags (Bent 1946). Food: The diet is made up of about 65 percent animal and 35 percent vegetable matter. O

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Tufted titmouse

Tufted titmouse

Habitat: The tufted titmouse is the largest North American titmouse and is common throughout the eastern deciduous woodlands. These active and vocal birds are generally found in groups of 2 to 6 in thick timber stands, often near water (Gillespie 1930). The black-crested titmouse, found in southern Texas and northeastern Mexico, is now considered conspecific with the tufted titmouse (33rd supplement, A.O.U. Checklist). Nest: Nests of the tufted titmouse are very difficult to locate and are not o

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Plain titmouse

Plain titmouse

Habitat: Oak and pinyon-juniper woodlands from 5,000 to 7,000 feet elevation from Oregon south and west to Texas and New Mexico are the favored habitat of the plain titmouse. Nest: Plain titmice usually nest in natural cavities or old woodpecker holes. Most reported nests have been in oaks, 2 to 23 feet above ground (Bent 1946). Nest boxes are used when available (Wetmore 1964). Food: Beal (Bent 1946) examined the contents of 76 stomachs and found 43 percent animal material (true bugs 12 percent

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Bridled titmouse

Bridled titmouse

Habitat: Bridled titmice prefer chaparral and pinyon-juniper in the Southwest at elevations from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. This titmouse also uses areas along streams where cottonwoods are present (Phillips et al. 1964). Nest: Almost all nest locations have been recorded in natural cavities of dead and living oak trees from 4 to 28 feet above the ground (Bent 1946). Food: No published information was found, but the diet is probably similar to that of other members of this genus. All live in similar h

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White-breasted nuthatch

White-breasted nuthatch

Habitat: White-breasted nuthatches are non-migratory in most forest types in the United States. They show a preference for deciduous woodlands. In the Rocky Mountains, they occur most commonly below 9,500 feet elevation (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Nest: White-breasted nuthatches nest almost exclusively in natural cavities within living trees of mature forests. When natural cavities are unavailable, they may use an abandoned woodpecker hole (Kilham 1968b). In the West, nests have been found in de

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Red-breasted nuthatch

Red-breasted nuthatch

Habitat: Red-breasted nuthatches nest throughout the high elevations of the Rocky Mountains and in the Canadian boreal forests. They are erratic winter migrants to the eastern forest types. In Colorado, their preferred habitat is the coniferous-aspen type from the Canadian Life Zone to timberline. Nest: Red-breasted nuthatches will excavate their own cavity if a natural cavity or woodpecker hole is not available or to their liking (de Kiriline 1952). Nests are usually 6 to 40 feet above the grou

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Brown-headed nuthatch

Brown-headed nuthatch

Habitat: Clearings and areas that have been burned (more old stumps available for nesting) in southern pine woods are preferred by brown-headed nuthatches. They can also be found in mixed pine and hardwood forests of extreme southeastern United States (Bent 1948). Nest: Brown-headed nuthatches excavate or partially excavate nest cavities 4.5 to 8 inches deep in dead trees and stumps (often fire blackened) or posts and poles. Bent (1948) gave little evidence that the brown-headed nuthatch will us

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Pygmy nuthatch

Pygmy nuthatch

Habitat: Pygmy nuthatches are common in ponderosa pine forests throughout the West. They are also found in Jeffrey pine, Bishop pine, and Monterey pine associations in California (Grinnell and Miller 1944), and in pinyon-juniper woodlands in Arizona (Phillips et al. 1964). Nest: Nearly all reported nests of the pygmy nuthatch have been from 8 to 60 feet above ground in cavities excavated by the bird itself in dead or live pine trees (Bent 1948). We found 27 nests in ponderosa pine snags and two

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Brown creeper

Brown creeper

Habitat: This inconspicuous small bird is fairly common in the coniferous forests of the Transition and Canadian Life Zones. In Colorado, it breeds from 7,000 feet to timberline (Bailey and Neidrach 1965). Creepers winter throughout the forests of the southern states. Nest: Sometimes creepers nest in natural cavities and old woodpecker holes, but generally they make their nests between the loose bark and the trunk of a large dead tree (Bent 1948). We found three nests behind the loosened bark of

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House wren

House wren

Habitat: House wrens are common nesters in shrubbery and brush throughout the northern two-thirds of the United States, but they winter in the southern states. They range from the plains to timberline throughout the Rocky Mountains. They are commonly found along the edges of woods, swamps, fields, and in orchards. Nest: House wrens are aggressive in their nesting habits and will drive other birds from cavities. Nests have been found in a variety of sites including 2-inch pipes used to brace fenc

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Brown-throated wren

Brown-throated wren

Habitat: Brown-throated wrens inhabit oak forests, mostly in desert ranges, but can be found up to elevations of 8,000 feet in southern Arizona. Nest: This wren uses natural cavities or old woodpecker holes in tree trunks or limbs. Like the house wren, it will sometimes occupy recesses about buildings and nest boxes (Pough 1957). Food: We could not find published information on food habits but the diet is probably insects similar to that of other wrens....

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Winter wren

Winter wren

Habitat: Winter wrens inhabit coniferous forests of spruce, fir, and pine, and underbrush in woodlands in eastern and western United States and Canada. Nest: Winter wren nests, made from twigs and leaves, are built near the ground in exposed roots or fallen logs or in rocks and crevices (Bent 1948, Wetmore 1964). Food: Details on food items were not found in the literature, but the diet is probably adult and larval stages of insects (Bent 1948)....

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Bewick’s wren

Bewick’s wren

Habitat: Bewick’s wrens are common and widespread in the West, but uncommon and local in the Appalachians and Ozarks. They are usually found in farmyards, brushlands, fencerows, and suburban areas. Bewick’s wrens are fairly common in the pinyon-juniper forest type, and in mesquite-willow-cottonwood associations along southwestern streams. Nest: Nests of the Bewick’s wren can be found in a multitude of places. Most nests are cup-shaped and can be either open or closed above. They are usually loca

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Carolina wren

Carolina wren

Habitat: Carolina wrens are common in forest types with thick underbrush throughout the eastern United States. The number in northern populations fluctuates widely depending on the harshness of winter conditions. Nest: Carolina wrens are quite universal in their choice of nesting sites. These wrens prefer nesting sites that are fairly well enclosed, but they are not totally dependent upon cavities. They are well adapted to habitat conditions provided by man, but also nest in the woods where they

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Eastern bluebird

Eastern bluebird

Habitat: Under natural conditions, eastern bluebirds prefer to use cavities in savannah-like habitats east of the Great Plains (Rustad 1972). They are an edge species and therefore do not live in dense woods or in closely built residential sections of town (Thomas 1946). Like purple martins, bluebirds have taken advantage of nest boxes provided in areas around farms, near open fields, and in orchards. Nest: Eastern bluebird nesting sites (snags) are often eliminated because of their unsightlines

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Western bluebird

Western bluebird

Habitat: The western bluebird is most abundant in open ponderosa pine forests of the Transition Zone, but may also be found in oak woodlands, pinyon-juniper, mixed conifer, and subalpine forests. Nest: Nests are usually in old woodpecker holes, but this bird also uses natural cavities. Nests have been reported in oak, sycamore, and pine trees. In Monterey County, California, nests were found from 5 to 40 feet above ground in pine stumps or trees (Bent 1949). This bluebird, like the eastern, also

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Mountain bluebird

Mountain bluebird

Habitat: The mountain bluebird nests in nearly all timber types of the Rocky Mountain region, and is reported from 800 to 11,000 feet elevation in Idaho (Burleigh 1972). However, this species usually ranges from 7,000 to 11,000 feet in open forests or near forest edges. Nest: The mountain bluebird usually nests in natural cavities or in old woodpecker holes but will also use man-made structures. Nests have been reported in fir and pinyon snags and aspen trees (Burleigh 1972, Bent 1949). We recor

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Starling

Starling

Habitat: Starlings breed in various habitats that provide adequate nestling food (Troetschler 1976) but are perhaps most numerous in suburban and rural habitat where suitable nesting sites abound. Kalmbach (1928) noted that starlings prefer thickly settled agricultural areas and stated that “They are partial to human association....” During establishment in the United States, starlings first settled in lowland areas and are still abundant there (Small 1974, Royall 1966, Bent 1950). In a southeas

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Crested myna

Crested myna

Habitat: The crested myna is native to the plains and lowlands of cultivated southern China, and was introduced in Vancouver, B.C., Canada in the 1890’s. Although the myna has been reported in the states of Washington and Oregon, most of the population is in Greater Vancouver and Vancouver Island. Mynas are apparently dwellers of urban and nearby open field areas (Mackay and Hughes 1963). Nest: In urban areas, mynas nest in almost any enclosed area, including bird boxes intended for other birds.

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Prothonotary warbler

Prothonotary warbler

Habitat: The prothonotary warbler is found south of Canada in the eastern deciduous forests of the United States. Other names for this warbler (golden swamp warbler and willow warbler) describe its preference for swamps and periodically flooded areas. The prothonotary often lives near running water with streamside willows (Pearson 1936). Nest: Nests are almost always in stumps and snags either standing in or near water (Simpson 1969) and often leaning over the water (Pearson 1936). Downy woodpec

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Lucy’s warbler

Lucy’s warbler

Habitat: This warbler inhabits mesquite woodlands and riparian vegetation with willows and cottonwoods from Nevada to the southwestern United States. Nest: Nests of Lucy’s warblers are usually located in tree cavities or under loose bark in willows, cottonwoods and mesquite. Ironwood, palo verde, and catclaw have also been used for nest trees (Robbins et al. 1966, Bent 1953, Peterson 1961). Food: Insects are the major food items in the diet of Lucy’s warbler (Bent 1953)....

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House sparrow

House sparrow

Habitat: House sparrows are well known associates of man, thriving in towns and urban situations. They are also birds of the suburban-rural landscape (Summers-Smith 1963). Optimum habitat requirements are perhaps best met around buildings where waste grain from poultry and livestock feeding can be found. The species is scarce or absent from densely forested and desert regions uninhabited by man (Kalmbach 1940). Nest: House sparrows nest in eaves, crevices, and holes in buildings; in vines and cr

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European tree sparrow

European tree sparrow

Habitat: The European tree sparrow was introduced in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1870. Coincident with the increase in house sparrows, European tree sparrows left the thickly settled parts of St. Louis and established populations throughout the city outskirts, suburban areas, farmyards, and woodlots. The species now occupies approximately 8,500 square miles in extreme east-central Missouri and west-central Illinois. They appear to be slowly expanding their range northward in western Illinois (Barlow

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