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Outlines Of Universal History

George Park Fisher

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OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY

OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY

Designed as a Text-book and for Private Reading By George Park Fisher, D.D., LL.D. Professor in Yale University Inscribed by the author as a token of love and thankfulness to his daughter In writing this work I have endeavored to provide a text-book suited to more advanced pupils. My idea of such a work was, that it should present the essential facts of history in due order, and in conformity to the best and latest researches; that it should point out clearly the connection of events and of succ

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PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.

PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.

The characteristics of this work are stated in the Preface to the First Edition, which may be read on page v and the next following pages of the present volume. The work has been subjected to a careful revision. The aim has been to make whatever amendments are called for by historical investigations in the interval since it was published. Besides corrections, brief statements have been woven here and there into the text. The revision has embraced the bibliography connected with the successive pe

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PART II. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

PART II. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.

From the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to the Fall of Constantinople (A.D. 375-1453)....

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PART III. MODERN HISTORY.

PART III. MODERN HISTORY.

From the Fall of Constantinople (1453) to the Present Time PERIOD I. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE REFORMATION (1453-1517). PERIOD III. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1648-1789)....

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

DEFINITION OF HISTORY.—The subject of history is man. History has for its object to record his doings and experiences. It may then be concisely defined as a narrative of past events in which men have been concerned. To describe the earth, the abode of man, to delineate the different kingdoms of nature, and to inquire into the origin of them, or to explain the physical or mental constitution of human beings, is no part of the office of history. All this belongs to the departments of natural and i

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ETHNOLOGY.

ETHNOLOGY.

Ethnology is a new science. Its function is to ascertain the origin and filiation, the customs and institutions, of the various nations and tribes which make up, or have made up in the past, the human race. In tracing their relationship to one another, or their genealogy, the sources of information are mainly three,— physical characteristics, language , and written memorials of every sort. Ethnology is a branch of Anthropology, as this is a subdivision of Zoölogy, and this, again, of Biology. Et

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MYTHOLOGY.

MYTHOLOGY.

The polytheistic religions are in themselves a highly interesting part of the history of mankind. In the multiform character that belongs to them we find reflected the peculiar traits of the several peoples among whom they have arisen. The history of religion stands in a close connection with the development of the fine arts,—architecture and sculpture, painting, music, and also poetry. The earliest rhythmical utterance was in hymns to the gods. To worship, all the arts are largely indebted for

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PREHISTORIC TIMES.

PREHISTORIC TIMES.

PREHISTORIC RELICS.—Within the last half century, in various countries of Europe, and in other countries, also, which have been, earlier or later, seats of civilization, there have been found numerous relics of uncivilized races, which, at periods far remote, must have inhabited the same ground. Many of these antiquities are met with in connection with remains of fossil elephants, hyenas, bears, etc.,—with animals which no longer live in the regions referred to, and some of which have become who

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ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY.

ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY.

The periods of history are not divided from one another by merely chronological limits, according to intervals of time of a definite duration. Such a classification may be of use to the memory, but it is arbitrary in its character. The landmarks of history are properly placed at the turning-points where new eras take their start, whether the intervals between them are longer or shorter. Of these natural divisions, the most general and the most marked is that between ancient and modern history. A

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MEDIAEVAL AND LATER MODERN HISTORY.

MEDIAEVAL AND LATER MODERN HISTORY.

Since the fall of the Roman Empire, there has occurred no revolution to be compared with the circumstances and results of that event. An old world passed away, and a new world began to be. Yet the student, as he travels hitherward, arrives at another epoch of extraordinary change,—a period of ferment, when modern society in Europe takes on a form widely different from the character that had belonged to it previously. The long interval between ancient history and modern (in this more restricted s

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FROM THE BEGINNING OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY TO THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES (A.D. 375).

FROM THE BEGINNING OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY TO THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES (A.D. 375).

DIVISIONS OF ANCIENT HISTORY.—Ancient history separates itself into two main divisions. In the first the Oriental nations form the subject; in the second, which follows in the order of time, the European peoples, especially Greece and Rome, have the central place. The first division terminates, and the second begins, with the rise of Grecian power and the great conflict of Greece with the Persian Empire, 492 B.C. SECTIONS OF ORIENTAL HISTORY.—But Oriental history divides itself into two distinct

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ORIENTAL HISTORY.

ORIENTAL HISTORY.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—Europe and Asia together form one vast continent, yet have a partial boundary between them in the Ural Mountains and River, and in the deep bed of the Caspian and Black seas. Asia, which extends from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific, and from the Arctic Sea to the Indian Ocean, embraces an immense plateau, stretching from the Black Sea to Corea. This plateau spreads like a fan as it advances eastward. It is traversed by chains of mountains, and bordered also by lofty mountai

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SECTION I. CHINA AND INDIA. CHAPTER I. CHINA.

SECTION I. CHINA AND INDIA. CHAPTER I. CHINA.

China proper comprises less than half of the present Chinese Empire. It was called the land of Sinae or Seres by the ancients, and in the middle ages bore the name of Cathay. In the north of China are the broad alluvial plains, and in the north-eastern portion of the empire, an immense delta. The rest of the country is hilly and mountainous. The nucleus of the Chinese nation is thought to have been a band of immigrants, who are supposed by some to have started from the region south-east of the C

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BUDDHISM.

BUDDHISM.

The Brahminical system has not ceased to maintain its supremacy in India since the time when it was presented to view in the law-codes. But it has not escaped alteration and attack. New movements, religious and political, have appeared to modify its character. Of these, Buddhism is by far the most memorable. THE LIFE OF BUDDHA.—Of the life of Buddha we have only legendary information, where it is impossible to separate fact from romance. The date of his death was between 482 and 472 B.C. He was

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SECTION II. THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS. CHAPTER I. EGYPT.

SECTION II. THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS. CHAPTER I. EGYPT.

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE.—When the curtain that hides the far distant past is lifted, we find in the valley of the Nile a people of a dark color, tinged with red, and a peculiar physiognomy, who had long existed there. Of their beginnings, there is no record. It is not likely that they came down the river from the south, as some have thought; more probably they were of Asiatic origin. Their language, though it certainly shows affinities with the Semitic tongues in its grammar, is utterly dissimil

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ASSYRIA AND BABYLON.

ASSYRIA AND BABYLON.

THE GEOGRAPHY.—Assyria and Babylonia were geographically connected. They were inhabited by the same race, and, for the greater part of their history, were under one government. Babylonia comprised the lower basin of the Euphrates and Tigris, while Assyria included the hilly region along the upper and middle Tigris; the boundary being where the two rivers, in their long progress from their sources in the mountains of Armenia, at length approach one another at a place about three hundred and fifty

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I. THE OLD KINGDOM OF BABYLON.

I. THE OLD KINGDOM OF BABYLON.

EARLY HISTORY.—The history of ancient Babylonia is still very obscure, and the chronology only tentative. We see at first a number of independent cities, each ruled by a petty king, who was also a priest. Then appear groups of cities, one of which exercised sway over a more or less extended district. The center of power was now in Erech, now in Ur, or Babylon, or some other city, whose king ruled supreme over numerous vassal kings. Among the first important names known to us are those of Sargon

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II. THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.

II. THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.

GROWTH OF ITS POWER.—Assyria was even greater, as a conquering power, than Babylon. In the legends current among the Greeks, the building-up of the monarchy, and of Nineveh its capital, as well as of Babylon, is referred to the legendary heroes, Ninus and his queen Semiramis . The name of Ninus is not recorded on the monuments, and is, perhaps, a kind of mythical personification of Assyrian conquests and grandeur; and the name of Semiramis does not appear until the ninth century B.C. She may hav

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III. THE NEW BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.

III. THE NEW BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.

TRIUMPS OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR.—Syria was now at the mercy of Nebuchadnezzar. He captured Jerusalem (597 B.C.), despoiled the temple and palace, and led away Jehoiakim as a captive. He placed on the throne of Judah Jehoiakim's uncle, Zedekiah. But this king, having arranged an alliance between Egypt and the Phoenician cities, revolted (590 B.C.), refusing to pay his tribute. Again Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem, but raised the siege, in order to drive home Apries II. (Hophra), the Egyptian al

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CHAPTER III. THE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS.

CHAPTER III. THE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS.

PHOENICIA.—A narrow strip of territory separates the mountains of Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean. Of this belt the northern part, west of Lebanon, about one hundred and fifty miles long, varies in width from five to fourteen miles. In some places the cliffs approach close to the sea. This belt of land was occupied by the first of the great maritime and commercial peoples of antiquity, the Phoenicians. Their language was Semitic, closely akin to Hebrew. COMMERCE AND PROSPERITY OF THE

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CHAPTER IV. THE HEBREWS.

CHAPTER IV. THE HEBREWS.

PECULIARITY OF THE HEBREWS.—While the rest of the nations worshiped "gods many and lords many," whom they confounded with the motions of the heavenly bodies, or with other aspects of nature, there was one people which attained to a faith in one God, the Creator and Preserver of the universe, who is exalted above nature, and whom it was deemed impious to represent by any material image. More than is true of any other people, religion was consciously the one end and aim of their being. To bring th

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RETROSPECT.

RETROSPECT.

In Eastern Asia the Chinese nation was built up, the principal achievement of the Mongolian race. Its influence was restricted to neighboring peoples of kindred blood. Its civilization, having once attained to a certain stage of progress, remained for the most part stationary. China, in its isolation, exerted no power upon the general course of history. Not until a late age, when the civilization of the Caucasian race should be developed, was the culture of China to produce, in the mingling of t

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DIVISION II. EUROPE.

DIVISION II. EUROPE.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—The Alps, continued on the west by the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian mountains, and carried eastward to the Black Sea by the Balkan range, form an irregular line, that separates the three peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and Greece from the great plain of central Europe. On the north of this plain, there is a corresponding system of peninsulas and islands, where the Baltic answers in a measure to the Mediterranean. This midland sea, which at once unites and separates the three conti

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DIVISIONS OF GREEK HISTORY.

DIVISIONS OF GREEK HISTORY.

Greek history embraces three general periods . The first is the formative period, and extends to the Persian wars, 500 B.C. The second period covers the flourishing era of Greece, from 500 B.C. to 359 B.C. The third is the Macedonian period, when the freedom of Greece was lost,—the era of Philip and Alexander, and of Alexander's successors. PERIOD I. is divided into (1) the mythical or prehistoric age, extending to 776 B.C.; (2) the age of the formation of the principal states. PERIOD II. includ

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PERIOD I. GREECE PRIOR TO THE PERSIAN WARS. CHAPTER I. THE PREHISTORIC AGE.

PERIOD I. GREECE PRIOR TO THE PERSIAN WARS. CHAPTER I. THE PREHISTORIC AGE.

ORIGIN OF THE GREEKS—Before the Hellenes parted from their Aryan ancestry, they had words for "father," "mother," "brother," "son," and "daughter," as well as for certain connections by marriage. They lived in houses, pastured flocks and herds, possessed dogs and horses. They had for weapons, the sword and the bow. "They knew how to work gold, silver, and copper; they could count up to a hundred; they reckoned time by the lunar month; they spoke of the sky as the 'heaven-father.'" The difference

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CHAPTER II. THE FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES.

CHAPTER II. THE FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES.

ARISTOCRATIC GOVERNMENT.—The early kings were obeyed as much for their personal qualities, such as valor and strength of body, as for their hereditary title. By degrees the noble families about the king took control, and the kingship thus gave way to the rule of an aristocracy. The priestly office, which required special knowledge, remained in particular families, as the _Eumolpidae_e at Athens,—families to whom was ascribed the gift of the seer, and to whom were known the Eleusinian mysteries .

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PERIOD II. THE FLOURISHING ERA OF GREECE. CHAPTER I. THE PERSIAN WARS.

PERIOD II. THE FLOURISHING ERA OF GREECE. CHAPTER I. THE PERSIAN WARS.

THE IONIAN REVOLT.—Hardly were the Greeks in possession of liberty when they were compelled to measure their strength with the mighty Persian Empire. The cities of Asia Minor groaned under the tyranny of their Persian rulers, and sighed for freedom. At length, under propitious circumstances, Miletus rose in revolt under the lead of Aristagoras . Alone of the Grecian cities, Athens, and Eretria on the island of Euboea, sent help. The insurrection was extinguished in blood: its leaders perished. M

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CHAPTER II. THE ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS.

CHAPTER II. THE ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS.

PAUSANIAS AND THEMISTOCLES.—Both of the generals by whom the Persians had been overcome, fell under the displeasure of the states to which they belonged. Pausanias was so far misled by ambition as to engage in a negotiation with the Persians for the elevation of himself, by their aid, to supreme power in Greece. His plots were discovered, and he was compelled by his countrymen to starve to death in a temple to which he had fled for refuge. Themistocles caused Athens to be surrounded by a wall, a

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I. TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS (421 B.C.).

I. TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS (421 B.C.).

TO THE DEATH OF PERICLES.—Wonderful as was the growth of Athens under Pericles, it is obvious that she stood exposed to two principal sources of danger. Her allies and dependants, the stay of that naval power in which her strength lay, were discontented with her spirit of domination and of extortion. The Peloponnesian Alliance , which was led by Sparta , the bulwark of the aristocratic interest, comprised, with the Dorian, most of the Aeolian states,—as Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, etc. Its military

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II. THE INFLUENCE OF ALCIBIADES.

II. THE INFLUENCE OF ALCIBIADES.

THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION.—From this time, Alcibiades , a relative of Pericles, but lacking his sobriety and disinterested spirit, plays an active part. Beautiful in person, rich, a graceful and effective orator, but restless and ambitious, he quickly acquired great influence. Three years after the peace of Nicias, he persuaded Athens to join a league of disaffected Peloponnesian allies of Sparta; but in the battle of Mantinea (418 B.C.) the Spartans regained their supremacy. It was at the suggest

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III. THE FALL OF ATHENS.

III. THE FALL OF ATHENS.

Lysander once more took command of the Spartan fleet. Shrewd in diplomacy, as well as skillful in battle, he strengthened his naval force by the aid of Cyrus the Younger, the Persian governor in Asia Minor. Watching his opportunity, he attacked the Athenians at Ægospotami , opposite Lampsacus, when soldiers and sailors were off their guard (405 B.C.). Three thousand of them, who had not been slain in the assault, were slaughtered after they had been taken captive. Conon escaped to Cyprus with on

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CHAPTER IV. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA.—THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN HEGEMONY.

CHAPTER IV. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA.—THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN HEGEMONY.

THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND.—The Anabasis , the principal work of Xenophon , describes the retreat from the Tigris to the coast of Asia Minor, of a body of ten thousand mercenary Greek troops,—a retreat effected under his own masterly leadership. The Persian Empire, now in a process of decay, was torn with civil strife. Xerxes and his eldest son had been murdered (465 B.C.). The story of several reigns which follow is full of tales of treason and fratricide. On the death of Darius II . (Dari

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PERIOD III. THE MACEDONIAN ERA. CHAPTER I. PHILIP AND ALEXANDER.

PERIOD III. THE MACEDONIAN ERA. CHAPTER I. PHILIP AND ALEXANDER.

THE MACEDONIANS.—The Greeks, exhausted by long-continued war with one another, were just in a condition to fall under the dominion of Macedonia , the kingdom on the north which had been ambitious to extend its power. The Macedonians were a mixed race, partly Greek and partly Illyrian. Although they were not acknowledged to be Greeks, their kings claimed to be of Greek descent, and were allowed to take part in the Olympian games. At first an inland community, living in the country, rough and uncu

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I. THE KINGDOM OF THE PTOLEMIES.

I. THE KINGDOM OF THE PTOLEMIES.

PTOLEMY LAGI (323-285 B.C.).—When Alexander transferred the seat of power in Egypt from Memphis to Alexandria , he accomplished results which he could not at all foresee. The Greek element became predominant in Egyptian affairs. A great stimulus was given to commerce and to foreign intercourse. The Egyptians themselves entered zealously into industrial pursuits. Ptolemy Lagi (Soter), the first of the new sovereigns, was wise enough to guard his own territory, and even to establish his rule in Pa

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II. MACEDON AND GREECE.

II. MACEDON AND GREECE.

When Alexander was in the far East, the Spartan king, Agis III . (330 B.C.), headed a revolt against Antipater ; but Agis was vanquished and slain. The death of Alexander kindled the hope of regaining liberty among patriotic Greeks. Athens, under Demosthenes and Hyperides , led the way. A large confederacy was formed. Leosthenes , the Greek commander, defeated Antipater, and shut him up within the walls of Lamia (in Thessaly). But the Greeks were finally beaten at Crannon . Favorable terms were

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III. THE SYRIAN KINGDOM.

III. THE SYRIAN KINGDOM.

Seleucus I . (Nicator) (312-280 B.C.) was the founder of the Syrian kingdom. From Babylon he extended his dominion to the Black Sea , to the Jaxartes , and even to the Ganges , so far as to make the Indian prince, Sandracottus , acknowledge him as suzerain. From Babylon he removed his capital to Antioch on the Orontes, which he founded,—a city destined to be the rival of Alexandria among the cities of the East. The effect of this removal, however, was to loosen his hold upon the Eastern province

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

PLACE OF ROME IN HISTORY.—Rome is the bridge which unites, while it separates, the ancient and the modern world. The history of Rome is the narrative of the building up of a single City, whose dominion gradually spread until it comprised all the countries about the Mediterranean, or what were then the civilized nations. "In this great empire was gathered up the sum total that remained of the religions, laws, customs, languages, letters, arts, and sciences of all the nations of antiquity which ha

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PERIOD I. ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE PATRICIANS. (753-304 B.C.) CHAPTER I. ROME UNDER THE KINGS (753-509 B.C.).

PERIOD I. ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE PATRICIANS. (753-304 B.C.) CHAPTER I. ROME UNDER THE KINGS (753-509 B.C.).

CHARACTER OF THE LEGENDS.—There is no doubt that the Romans lived for a time under the rule of kings. These were not like the Greek kings, hereditary rulers, nor were they chosen from a single family. But the stories told in later times respecting the kings, their names and doings, are quite unworthy of credit. They rest upon no contemporary evidence or sure tradition. To say nothing of the miraculous elements that enter into the narratives, they are laden with other improbabilities, which prove

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CHAPTER II. ROME UNDER THE PATRICIANS (509-304 B.C.).

CHAPTER II. ROME UNDER THE PATRICIANS (509-304 B.C.).

RIVALRY OF CLASSES.—The abolishing of royalty left Rome as "a house divided against itself." The power granted to the Comitia Centuriata did not suffice to produce contentment. The patricians still decided every thing, and used their strength in an oppressive way. Besides the standing contest between the patricians and plebeians, there was great suffering on the side of the poorer class of plebeians. Many were obliged to incur debts; and their creditors enforced the rigorous law against them, lo

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PERIOD II. TO THE UNION OF ITALY. (304-264 B.C.) CHAPTER I. CONQUEST OF THE LATINS AND ITALIANS (304-282 B.C.).

PERIOD II. TO THE UNION OF ITALY. (304-264 B.C.) CHAPTER I. CONQUEST OF THE LATINS AND ITALIANS (304-282 B.C.).

WARS WITH THE GAULS.—The increased vigor produced by the adjustment of the conflict of classes manifested itself in a series of minor wars. The Romans were now able to face the Gauls, who had permanently planted themselves in Northern Italy. Against them they waged four wars in succession, the last of which ended in a signal victory for the Roman side (367-349). Wars with the Etruscan cities brought the whole of Southern Etruria under Roman rule (358-351). FIRST SAMNITE WAR.—The neighbor that wa

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WAR WITH PYRRHUS AND UNION OF ITALY (282-264 B.C.).

WAR WITH PYRRHUS AND UNION OF ITALY (282-264 B.C.).

TARENTUM AND PYRRHUS.—The Samnites were overcome. The Greeks and Romans were now to come into closer intercourse with one another,—an intercourse destined to be so momentous in its effect on each of the two kindred races, and, through their joint influence, on the whole subsequent course of European history. Alexander the Great had died too soon to permit him to engage in any plan of conquest in the West. In the wars of his successors the Romans had stood aloof. Now they were brought into confli

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PERIOD III. THE PUNIC WARS: TO THE CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE AND OF THE GREEK STATES. (264-146 B.C.) CHAPTER I. THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WABS (264-202 B.C.).

PERIOD III. THE PUNIC WARS: TO THE CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE AND OF THE GREEK STATES. (264-146 B.C.) CHAPTER I. THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WABS (264-202 B.C.).

THE FIRST PUNIC WAR.—By dint of obstinacy, and hard fighting through long centuries, the Romans had united under them all Italy, or all of what was then known as Italy. It was natural that they should look abroad. The rival power in the West was the great commercial city of Carthage . The jealousy between Rome and Carthage had slumbered so long as they were threatened by the invasion of Pyrrhus , which was dangerous to both. Sicily , from its situation, could hardly fail to furnish the occasion

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CHAPTER II. CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA: THE THIRD PUNIC WAR: THE DESTRUCTION OF CORINTH (202-146 B.C.).

CHAPTER II. CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA: THE THIRD PUNIC WAR: THE DESTRUCTION OF CORINTH (202-146 B.C.).

PHILIP V.: ANTIOCHUS III.—The Romans were now dominant in the West. They were strong on the sea, as on the land. Within fifty years Rome likewise became the dominant power in the East. Philip V. of Macedon had made an alliance with Hannibal, but had furnished him no valuable aid. The Senate maintained that a body of Macedonian mercenaries had fought against the Romans at Zama . Rhodes and Athens , together with King Attalus of Pergamon, sought for help against Philip . The Romans were joined by

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PERIOD IV. THE ERA OF REVOLUTION AND OF THE CIVIL WARS. (146-31 B.C.) CHAPTER I. THE GRACCHI: THE FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR: MARIUS AND SULLA (146-78 B.C.).

PERIOD IV. THE ERA OF REVOLUTION AND OF THE CIVIL WARS. (146-31 B.C.) CHAPTER I. THE GRACCHI: THE FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR: MARIUS AND SULLA (146-78 B.C.).

CONDITION OF ROME.—We come now to an era of internal strife. The Romans were to turn their arms against one another: Yet it is remarkable that the march of foreign conquest still went on. It was by conquests abroad that the foremost leaders in the civil wars rose to the position which enabled them to get control in the government at home. The power of the Senate had been more and more exalted. Foreign affairs were mainly at its disposal. The increase in the number of voters in the comitia , and

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CHAPTER II. POMPEIUS AND THE EAST: TO THE DEATH OF CRASSUS (78-53 B.C.).

CHAPTER II. POMPEIUS AND THE EAST: TO THE DEATH OF CRASSUS (78-53 B.C.).

WAR WITH SERTORIUS.—Not many years after _Sulla's _death, his reforms were annulled. This was largely through the agency of Cneius Pompeius , who had supported Sulla , but was not a uniform or consistent adherent of the aristocratic party. He did not belong to an old family, but had so distinguished himself that Sulla gave him a triumph. Later he rose to still higher distinction by his conduct of the war against Sertorius in Spain, a brave and able man of the Marian party, who was supported ther

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CHAPTER III. POMPEIUS AND CAESAR: THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.

CHAPTER III. POMPEIUS AND CAESAR: THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.

THE CIVIL WAR.—The rupture between Pompeius and Caesar brought on another civil war, and subverted the Roman republic. They were virtually regents. The triumvirs had arranged with one another for the partition of power. The death of Crassus took away a link of connection which had united the two survivors. The death of Julia , the beautiful daughter of Caesar , in 54 B.C., had previously dissolved another tie. Pompeius contrived to remain in Rome, and to govern Spain by legates. Each of the two

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THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.

THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.

THE JEWS AND THEIR DISPERSION.—There were three ancient peoples, each of which fulfilled an office of its own in history. The Greeks were the intellectual people, the Romans were founders in law and politics: from the Hebrews the true religion was to spring. At the epoch of the birth of Jesus, the Hebrews, like the Greeks and Romans, were scattered abroad, and mingled with all other nations. Wherever they went they carried their pure monotheism, and built their synagogues for instruction in the

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THE JULIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.

THE JULIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.

C. JULIUS CÆSAR, m . Aurelia. | +—C. JULIUS CÆSAR. | +—Julia, m . M. Atius Balbus. | +—Atia, m . C. Octavius. | +—C. Octavius (adopted as son by the will of Julius) became C. JULIUS CÆSAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS, m . 2, Scribonia; | +—Julia m . 2, M. Vipsanius Agrippa. | +—Agrippina, | m . Germanicus. | | | +—CAIUS (Caligula), | | m . Cæsonia, | | |

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THE CLAUDIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.

THE CLAUDIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.

TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO. m . Livia Drusilla (afterwards wife of AUGUSTUS). | +—TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO. | +—Drusus Claudius Nero, m . Antonia, daughter of the Triumvir and niece of Augustus. | +—Germanicus, | m . Agrippina. | +—TI. CLAUDIUS DRUSUS, m . 5, Valeria Messalina. | +—Octavia, | m . NERO. | +—Britannicus. | +—By adoption, NERO....

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CHAPTER II. THE EMPERORS OF THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE.

CHAPTER II. THE EMPERORS OF THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE.

TIBERIUS.—During the long reign of the prudent Augustus , there was peace within the borders of the empire. He said of himself, that he "found Rome of brick, and left it of marble." This change may be taken as a symbol of the growth of material prosperity in the Roman dominions. But in his private relations, the emperor was less fortunate. His daughter Julia , a woman of brilliant talents, disgraced him by her immorality, and he was obliged to banish her. Her two elder sons died when they were y

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CHAPTER III. THE FLAVIANS AND THE ANTONINES.

CHAPTER III. THE FLAVIANS AND THE ANTONINES.

VESPASIAN: THE JEWISH WAR.— Vespasian , the first in the list of good emperors, restored discipline in the army and among the prætorians, instituted a reform in the finances, and erected the immense amphitheater now called the Coliseum , for the gladiatorial games. By his general, Cerealis , he put down the revolt in Germany and Eastern Gaul, and thus saved several provinces to the empire. Civilis , the leader of the rebellion, had aimed to establish an independent German principality on the wes

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I. EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS.

I. EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS.

We now enter upon a period of military license. The emperors are appointed by the soldiers. The rulers, when the soldiers fall out with them, are slain. In the course of ninety-two years, from 192 to 284, twenty-five emperors, with an average reign of less than four years for each, sat on the throne. Only two reigns exceeded ten years. Ten emperors perished by violence at the hands of the soldiers. A real advantage in this way of making emperors, was, that supreme power might thus devolve on abl

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II. THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY (TO A.D. 375).

II. THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY (TO A.D. 375).

DIOCLETIAN.—Once more the gigantic and weakened frame of the Roman Empire was invigorated by a change in the character of the chief rulers and in the method of government. Diocletian (284-305), one of a number of energetic emperors who were of Illyrian birth, first stripped the imperial office of its limitations, and converted it into an absolute monarchy. This new system was carried to its completion by Constantine . Diocletian took from the Senate what political jurisdiction was left to it. He

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THE IMPERIAL HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.

THE IMPERIAL HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.

CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS, m . 1, Helena; | +—CONSTANTINE I (the Great) m . 1, Minervina; 2, Fausta | +—CONSTANTINE II. | +—CONSTANTIUS II. | | | +—Constantia, | m . GRATIAN. | +—CONSTANS. | +—CONSTANTIA, m . | 1, Hannibalianus; | 2, GALLUS. | +—HELENA, m . JULIAN. 2, Theodora. | +—Constantius, m . | 1, Galla; | 2, Basilina. | | | +—GALLUS | | m . Constantia, widow of Hannibalianus. | | | +—JULIAN | m . Helena, daughter of Constantine I. | +—Co

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

CHARACTER OF THE MIDDLE AGES.—The middle ages include the long interval between the first general irruption of the Teutonic nations towards the close of the fourth century, to the middle of the fifteenth century, when the modern era, with a distinctive character of its own, began. Two striking features are observed in the mediæval era. First, there was a mingling of the conquering Germanic nations with the peoples previously making up the Roman Empire, and a consequent effect produced upon both.

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THE THEODOSIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE

THE THEODOSIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE

THEODOSIUS | +—THEODOSIUS I (the Great), m. , | 1, Flaccilla; | 2, Galla sister of Valentinian II | | | +—Grantianus | | | +—Pulcheria | | | +—ARCADIUS | | m. Eudoxia | | | | | +—THEODOSIUS II | | | m. Eudocia | | | | | | | +—Eudoxia | | | | m. VALENTINIAN III | | | | | | | +—Flaccilla | | | | | +—Pulcheria | | | m. MARCIAN | | | | | +—Three other daughters | | | +—HONORIUS | | m. Maria, daughter of Stilicho | | | +—Placidia m. | 1, Adolphus; | 2, CONSTANTIUS | | | +—VALENTINIAN III, | | m. Eudo

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CHAPTER II. THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS.

CHAPTER II. THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS.

THE GOTHS: THEODOSIUS I.—Towards the close of the fourth century, when Valens (364-378) was reigning in the East, the Huns moved from their settlements north of the Caspian, defeated the Alans , a powerful nation, and, compelling them to enter their service, invaded the empire of the Ostrogoths , then ruled by Hermanric . The Huns belonged to one branch of the Scythian race. They had migrated in vast numbers from Central Asia. Repulsive in form and visage, with short, thick bodies, and small, fi

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CHAPTER III. THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

CHAPTER III. THE EASTERN EMPIRE.

RELIGIOUS DISPUTES.—While the West was beginning to recover from the shock of the barbarian invasions, society in the Eastern Empire was growing more enervated and corrupt. For a considerable period the Byzantine government was managed by the influence of women. Thus Theodosius II ., the successor of Arcadius (408-450), was governed during his whole reign by his sister Pulcheria . In the East, there was an intense interest felt in the abstruse questions of metaphysical theology. The Greek mind w

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THE CARLOVINGIAN HOUSE

THE CARLOVINGIAN HOUSE

PIPIN of Heristal, d. 714. | +—Charles Martel, d. 741. | +—PIPIN the Short, king 752-768. | +—CHARLEMANGE, 768-814 (emperor 800). | | | +—Pipin, King of Italy, d. 810. | | | | | +—BERNARD, d. 818. | | | +—Charles, King of Franconia. | | | +—LOUIS the Pious, 814-840. | | | | LOTHARINGIA | | | +—LOTHAR I, 843-855. | | | | | +—LOUIS II, 855-875 | | | | | | | +—Hermingarde, m. | |

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RIVAL KINGS OF FRANCE NOT OF THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE.

RIVAL KINGS OF FRANCE NOT OF THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE.

Robert the Strong, d. 866. | +—EUDES, king 887-893. | +—ROBERT, king 922-923. | +—Emma, m. RUDOLPH of Burgundy; king 923-926. | +—Hugh the Great (father of Hugh Capet)....

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PERIOD II. FROM THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK KINGS TO THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE. (A.D. 751-962.) CHAPTER I. THE CARLOVINGIAN EMPIRE TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (A.D. 814).

PERIOD II. FROM THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK KINGS TO THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE. (A.D. 751-962.) CHAPTER I. THE CARLOVINGIAN EMPIRE TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (A.D. 814).

PIPIN THE SHORT.—The great event of the eighth century was the organization and spread of the dominion of the Franks , and the transfer to them of the Roman Empire of the West. Three Frank princes— Charles Martel , Pipin the Short , and Charlemagne , or Karl the Great —were the main instruments in bringing in this new epoch in European history. They followed a similar course, as regards the wars which they undertook, and their general policy. Charles Martel , the conqueror of the Saracens at Poi

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CHAPTER II. DISSOLUTION OP CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE: RISE OF THE KINGDOMS OF FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ITALY.

CHAPTER II. DISSOLUTION OP CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE: RISE OF THE KINGDOMS OF FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ITALY.

DIVISIONS IN THE EMPIRE.—The influence of Charlemagne was permanent; not so his empire. It had one religion and one government, but it was discordant in language and in laws. The Gallo-Romans and the Italians spoke the Romance language, with variations of dialect. The Germans used the Teutonic tongue. Charlemagne left to the Lombards, to the Saxons, and to other peoples, their own special laws. The great bond of unity had been the force of his own character and the vigor of his administration. H

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THE NORTHMEN IN ENGLAND AND ITALY.

THE NORTHMEN IN ENGLAND AND ITALY.

Later than the events narrated above, there were two great achievements of the Northmen, which it is most convenient to describe here, although they occurred in the eleventh century. They are the conquest of England, and the founding of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily....

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I. THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND.

I. THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND.

The NORMAN INVASION.—The duchy of Normandy had become very strong and prosperous, and, under the French-speaking Northmen, or Normans, had grown to be one of the principal states in Western Europe. Edward , king of England, surnamed the Confessor , or Saint (1042-1066) had been brought up in Normandy, and favored his own Norman friends by lavish gifts of honors and offices. The party opposed to the foreigners was led by Godwin , earl of the West Saxons. After being once banished, he returned in

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EFFECT OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST.

EFFECT OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST.

CHARACTER OF THE SAXONS.—The Saxons at the time of the Conquest were a strong and hardy race, hospitable, and fond of good cheer, which was apt to run into gluttony and revels. Their dwellings were poor, compared with those of the better class of Normans. They were enthusiastic in out-door sports, such as wrestling and hunting. They fought on foot, armed with the shield and axe. The common soldier, however, often had no better weapon than a fork or a sharpened stick. The ordeals in vogue, as a t

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II. THE NORMANS IN ITALY AND SICILY.

II. THE NORMANS IN ITALY AND SICILY.

THE NORMAN KINGDOM OF NAPLES AND SICILY.—Early in the eleventh century, knights from Normandy wandered into Southern Italy, and gave their aid to different states in battle against the Greeks and Saracens. In 1027 the ruler of Naples gave them a fertile district, where they built the city of Aversa . By the reports of their victories and good fortune, troops of pilgrims and warriors were attracted to join them. The valiant sons of the old count, Tancred of Hauteville , were among the number. The

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THE NORMANS.

THE NORMANS.

TANCRED OF HAUTEVILLE. | +—Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia, d. 1085. | | SICILY | +—ROGER, the Great Count, d. 1101 | +—Roger (of Apulia, 1127; king, 1130), 1101-1154. | +—WILLIAM I the Bad, 1154-1166, | m. Margaret, daughter of Garcia IV of Navarre. | | | +—WILLIAM II the Good, 1166-1189, | m. Joanna, daughter of Henry II of England. | +—CONSTANCE ( d. 1198), m. Emperor Henry VI....

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THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.

ORIGIN OF FEUDALISM.—When the Franks conquered Gaul, they divided the land among themselves. This estate each free German held as allodial property, or as a free-hold . The king took the largest share. His palaces were dwellings connected with large farms or hunting-grounds, and he went with his courtiers from one to another. To his personal followers and officers he allotted lands. These benefices , it seems, were granted at first with the understanding that he might resume them at will. As hol

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THE SAXON, FRANCONIAN, AND HOHENSTAUFEN IMPERIAL HOUSES.

THE SAXON, FRANCONIAN, AND HOHENSTAUFEN IMPERIAL HOUSES.

HENRY I [1] 918-936. | +—OTTO I, 936-973, Emperor, 962, m. | 1, Eadgyth, d. of Edward the Elder; | | | +—Liutgarde. | | 2, Adelheid, [2] d. of Rudolph II, King of Burgundy. | | | +—OTTO II, 973-983, m. | Theophania, daughter of Romanus II, Eastern Emperor. | | | +—OTTO III, 983-1002. | +—Henry the Wrangler, Duke of Bavaria. | +—Henry the Wrangler. | +—(St.) HENRY II, 1002-1024, m. Cunigunda of Luxemburg. CONRAD I, [1] 911-918. | +—C. Werner (?) m. daughter. | +—Conrad the

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I. KINGS AND EMPERORS OF THE SAXON HOUSE (918-1024).

I. KINGS AND EMPERORS OF THE SAXON HOUSE (918-1024).

HENRY THE FOWLER (918-936).—The envoys who carried to Duke Henry of Saxony the announcement of his election as king of Germany are said to have found him in the Hartz Mountains with a falcon on his wrist: hence he was called Henry the Fowler . He is a great figure in mediæval history, and did much to make Germany a nation. He won back Lorraine , which had broken off from the kingdom. With it the Netherlands —Holland, Flanders, etc.—came to Germany. He united all the five great dukedoms, and gove

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II. THE FRANCONIAN OR SALIAN EMPERORS (1024-1125).

II. THE FRANCONIAN OR SALIAN EMPERORS (1024-1125).

CONRAD II.: BURGUNDY: the POLES.—At a great assembly of dukes, counts, and prelates at Oppenheim on the Rhine, Conrad , a Franconian nobleman ( Conrad II. ), was elected emperor (1024-1039). He was in the prime of life, and went to work vigorously to repress disorder in his kingdom. He had the support of the cities, which were now increasing in importance. At his coronation in Rome, in 1027, there were two kings present, Canute of England and Denmark, and Rudolph III. of Burgundy (or Arles , as

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GENEALOGY OF THE WELFS.

GENEALOGY OF THE WELFS.

WELF, Duke of Bavaria, 1070-1101. | +—HENRY the Black, Duke of Bavaria, 1120-1126. | +—Judith, m. to Frederic, Duke of Swabia (d. 1147), | the son of Agnes, who was the daughter of HENRY IV. FREDERIC I | (Barbarossa) was the son of Judith, and this Frederic of Swabia. | The Swabian dukes were called Hohenstaufens , from a | castle on Mount Staufen in Wurtemberg. | +—HENRY the Proud, Duke of Bavaria 1126, of Saxony 1137; deprived, 1138. | +—HENRY the Lion

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ENGLAND.—FROM THE CONQUEST TO EDWARD I.

ENGLAND.—FROM THE CONQUEST TO EDWARD I.

WILLIAM I, 1066-1087, m. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V of Flanders | +—WILLIAM II (Rufus), 1087-1100. | | (Malcolm Canmore m. St. Margaret) | | | +—Mary m. Eustace, Count of Boulogne | | | +—Maud | | | +—Matilda. | m. +—HENRY I, 1100-1135 | | | +—MATILDA ( d. 1167) m. | 1, Emperor Henry V; | 2, Geoffrey Plantagenet, | Count of Anjou | | | +—HENRY II, 1154-1189 m. | Eleanor of Aquitaine, etc., | wife of Louis VII of France. | | | +—3, RICHARD I, 1189-1199. | | | +—5, JOHN, 1199-1216, m. | Isabel

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CHAPTER III. ENGLAND AND FRANCE: THE FIRST PERIOD OF THEIR RIVALSHIP (1066-1217).

CHAPTER III. ENGLAND AND FRANCE: THE FIRST PERIOD OF THEIR RIVALSHIP (1066-1217).

The emperors, the heads of the Holy Roman Empire, were the chief secular rulers in the Middle Ages, and were in theory the sovereigns of Christendom. But in the era of the Crusades, the kingdoms of England and France began to be prominent. In them, moreover, we see beginnings of an order of things not embraced in the mediaeval system. In France, steps are taken towards a compact monarchy. In England, there are laid the foundations of free representative government. CONNECTION OF ENGLAND AND FRAN

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FRANCE.—THE HOUSE OF VALOIS.

FRANCE.—THE HOUSE OF VALOIS.

PHILIP VI, 1328-1350, m . Jeanne, daughter of Robert II, Duke of Burgundy. | +—JOHN, 1350-1364, m . Bona, daughter of John, King of Bohemia. | +—CHARLES V, 1364-1380, m . Jeanne, daughter of Peter I, Duke of Bourbon. | +—CHARLES VI, 1380-1422, m . | Isabella, daughter of Stephen, Duke of Bavaria. | | | +—CHARLES VII, 1422-1461, | m . Mary, daughter | of Louis II of Anjou. | | | +—LOUIS XI, 1461-1483, | m . (2), Charlotte,

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ENGLAND.—DESCENDANTS OF EDWARD I

ENGLAND.—DESCENDANTS OF EDWARD I

EDWARD I, 1272-1307, m. . 1, Eleanor, daughter of Ferdinand III of Castile; | | +—4, EDWARD II, 1307-1327, m. . Isabel, daughter of Philip IV of France. | +—EDWARD III, 1327-1377, m. Philippa, daughter of William III of Hainault. | +—Edward, the Black Prince, | m. Joan of Kent. | | | +—RICHARD II, 1377-1399, m. | Anne, daughter of Emperor Charles IV. | +—Lionel, Duke of Clarence. | | | +—Philippa, m. Edmund Mortimer.

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THE DECLINE OP ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORITY: THE GROWTH OF THE NATIONAL SPIRIT AND OF MONARCHY.

THE DECLINE OP ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORITY: THE GROWTH OF THE NATIONAL SPIRIT AND OF MONARCHY.

CHARACTER OF THE NEW ERA.—The Church was supreme in the era of the Crusades. These had been great movements of a society of which the Pope was the head,—movements in which the pontiffs were the natural leaders. We come now to an era when the predominance of the Church declines, and the Papacy loses ground. Mingled with religion, there is diffused a more secular spirit. The nations grow to be more distinct from one another. Political relations come to be paramount. The national spirit grows stron

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CHAPTER I. ENGLAND AND FRANCE: SECOND PERIOD OP RIVALSHIP: THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (A.D. 1339-1453).

CHAPTER I. ENGLAND AND FRANCE: SECOND PERIOD OP RIVALSHIP: THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (A.D. 1339-1453).

PHILIP III. OF FRANCE (1270-1285).—In France royalty made a steady progress down to the long War of a Hundred Years. Philip III . (1270-1285) married his son to the heiress of Navarre . His sway extended to the Pyrenees. He failed in an expedition against Peter , king of Aragon , who had supported the Sicilians against Charles of Anjou ; but the time for foreign conquests had not come. PHILIP IV. OF FRANCE (1285-1314): WAR WITH EDWARD I. OF ENGLAND.— Philip IV. (the Fair) has been styled the "Ki

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PERIOD I. (TO THE PEACE OF BRÉTIGNY. 1360).

PERIOD I. (TO THE PEACE OF BRÉTIGNY. 1360).

ORIGIN OF THE WAR: EDWARD III. OF ENGLAND (1327-1377).—England and France entered on one of the longest wars of which there is any record in history. It lasted, with only a few short periods of intermission, for a hundred years. At the outset, there were two main causes of strife. First , the king of France naturally coveted the English territory around Bordeaux,— Guienne , whose people were French. Secondly , the English would not allow Flanders —whose manufacturing towns, as Ghent and Bruges,

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THE HOUSE OF VALOIS.

THE HOUSE OF VALOIS.

CHARLES, Count of Valois ( d . 1325), younger son of PHILIP III, KING OF FRANCE. (See below.) | +—PHILIP VI, 1328-1350. | +—JOHN the Good, 1350-1364. | +—CHARLES V the Wise, 1364-1380. | | | +—CHARLES VI, 1380-1422. | | | | | +—CHARLES VII, 1422-1461. | | | | | +—LOUIS XI, 1461-1483. | | | | | +—CHARLES VIII, 1483-1498. | | | | | +—Jeanne, | | m | | +—Duke of Orleans, afterwards LOUIS XII, 1498-1515.

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PERIOD II. (TO THE PEACE OF TROYES, 1420).

PERIOD II. (TO THE PEACE OF TROYES, 1420).

DUCHY OF BURGUNDY.—There was an opportunity to repair a part of these losses. In 1361 the ducal house of Burgundy became extinct, and the fief reverted to the crown. But John gave it to his son, Philip the Bold , who became the founder of the Burgundian branch of the house of Valois . Philip married the heiress of Flanders , and thus founded the power of the house of Burgundy in the Netherlands. DU GUESCLIN: CONTEST IN SPAIN.—The provinces of France were overrun and plundered by soldiers of both

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PERIOD III. (TO THE END, 1463).

PERIOD III. (TO THE END, 1463).

FRANCE IN 1422.—Both Henry and Charles VI. died in 1422. The Duke of Bedford was made regent in France, ruling in the name of his infant nephew ( Henry VI. ). Charles VII. (1422-1461) was proclaimed king by the Armagnacs south of the Loire. His situation was desperate, but he represented the national cause. Bedford laid siege to Orleans , the last bulwark of the royal party. The English were weakened, however, by the withdrawal of the Duke of Burgundy and his forces. JOAN OF ARC.—When the nation

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MILAN.—THE VISCONTI AND SFORZA.

MILAN.—THE VISCONTI AND SFORZA.

Matteo I, VISCONTI (nephew of Archbishop Otto), Lord of Milan, 1295-1332. | +—Stefano ( d. 1327). | +—Matteo II,[1] 1354-1355. | +—Bernabo,[1] 1354-1385. | | | +—Catharine, | m. (2), | +—GIAN GALEAZZO, 1378-1402 (first duke, 1396). | | | | | +—GIOVANNI MARIA, 1402-1412. | | | | | +—FILIPPO MARIA, 1412-1447. | | | | | | | +—Bianca Maria. | | | m. | | | +—FRANCESCO SFORZA, 1450-1466 | | | | | | | | | +—GALEAZZO MARIA, 1466-1476, m. | | | | |

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THE THREE NORTHERN KINGDOMS BEFORE THE UNION OF CALMAR.

THE THREE NORTHERN KINGDOMS BEFORE THE UNION OF CALMAR.

[D. means King of Denmark; N., King of Norway; S., King of Sweden.] HACO IV, N. ( d. 1263). | +—MAGNUS VI, N., 1263-1281. | +—ERIC II, N., 1281-1299. | +—HACO V, N., 1299-1320. | | MAGNUS I, S., 1279-1290. | | | +—BERGER, S., 1290-1320 (deposed; d. 1326) | | m. | | +—Martha. | | | | | +—CHRISTOPHER II, D., 1320-1340. | | | | | | | +—WALDEMAR III, D., 1346-1375. | | | | | | | +—Margaret,[2] D. N., 1387, S., 1388 (

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I. GERMANY.

I. GERMANY.

THE GREAT INTERREGNUM.—After the death of Frederick II . (1250), Germany and Italy, the two countries over which the imperial authority extended, were left free from its control. Italy was abandoned to itself, and thus to internal division. The case of Germany was analogous. During the "great interregnum," lasting for twenty-three years, the German cities, by their industry and trade, grew strong, as did the burghers in France, and in the towns in England, in this period. But in Germany the feud

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II. ITALY.

II. ITALY.

GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES: FREEDOM IN THE CITIES.—The inveterate foes of Italy were foreign interference and domestic faction. After the death of Frederick II ., the war of the popes against his successors lasted for seventeen years. After the defeat of Manfred (1266), Conradin , the last of the Hohenstaufens, died on the scaffold at Naples. Charles of Anjou lost Sicily through the rebellion of the Sicilian Vespers (1282); and dominion in that island, separated from Naples, passed to the house of A

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III. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

III. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY.—Resistance to the Arabs in Spain began in the northern mountainous region of Cantabria and Asturia , which even the West Goths had not wholly subdued, although Asturia was called Gothia . Asturia , a Christian principality (732), expanded into the kingdom called Leon (916), of which Castile was an eastern county. East of Leon , there grew up the kingdom of Navarre , mostly on the southern, but partly on the northern side of the Pyrenees. On the death of Sancho the Great , i

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IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.

IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.

THE BALTIC LANDS.—There are three divisions of Europe which neither Charlemagne's Empire nor the Eastern Empire included. The first is Spain , which had been comprised in the old Roman Empire. The second is Great Britain and the adjacent islands. Only a portion of Britain was held as a province by old Rome. The third is the two Scandinavian peninsulas,—Denmark, and Norway and Sweden, with the Slavonic lands to the east and south, which may be said to have had a common relation to the Baltic . Th

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V. POLAND AND RUSSIA.

V. POLAND AND RUSSIA.

THE SLAVONIC TRIBES.—The settlement of the Hungarians (Magyars) in Europe had the effect to divide the Slavonic tribes into three general groups. The northern Slaves were separated from the Slaves south of the Danube,—the inhabitants of Servia, Croatia, Dalmatia, etc. The north-western Slaves bordered on the Western Empire. The states of Bohemia and Poland grew up among them. On the east of this group of Slaves were the Russians. Both Poland and Russia became independent kingdoms. In the course

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VI. HUNGARY.

VI. HUNGARY.

THE ARPAD DYNASTY.—The chiefs of the Turanian Magyars , about 889, elected Arpad as successor of the leader under whom they had crossed the Carpathian Mountains. They overran Hungary and Transylvania, and terrified Europe by their invasions (p. 249). After their defeats by the emperors Henry I . and Otto the Great (p. 261), they confined themselves to their own country. The first king, Stephen ,—St. Stephen,—was crowned, with the consent of Pope Sylvester II ., in the year 1000. He divided the l

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VII. THE OTTOMAN TURKS.

VII. THE OTTOMAN TURKS.

OSMAN: MURAD I.—Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the Osman (or Ottoman ) Turks , warlike nomad hordes, in order to escape from the Mongols , moved from the region east of the Caspian Sea, and conquered in Asia Minor the remnant of the kingdom of the Seljukians (p. 270). Impelled by fanaticism and the desire of booty, Ottoman (or Osman ), their leader, advanced into Bithynia , and took Pruse , or Broussa , one of the most important cities of Asia Minor. The Greeks, with their Catalonian

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I. CHINA.

I. CHINA.

THE TANG DYNASTY (618-907).—The confusion in China, after the establishment of the three kingdoms, was brought to an end by the Sui dynasty, which, however, was of short duration. Between the Hans and the new epoch beginning with the T'angs , diplomatic intercourse was begun with Japan ; Christianity was introduced by the Nestorians; a new impulse was given to the spread of Buddhism ; the first traces of the art of printing are found; and the Yang-tse and the Yellow Rivers were connected by a ca

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II. JAPAN.

II. JAPAN.

CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT.—In the seventh century A.D., there began changes in Japan which resulted in a dual government, and eventually in a feudal system which continued until recent times. The Mikados retired from personal contact with their subjects; and the power by degrees fell into the hands of the families related to the Mikado, and combined into clans. Military control was exercised by the generals ( Shoguns ), and towards the end of the eighth century devolved on the two rival clans of Gen

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III. INDIA.

III. INDIA.

MOHAMMEDAN STATES.—During the Middle Ages, India was invaded by a succession of Mohammedan conquerors. The first invasions were in the seventh and the early part of the eighth centuries. A temporary lodgment was effected in the province of Sind , on the north-west, in 711; but the Moslems were driven out by the Hindus in 750. The next invader was the Afghan sultan, Mahmud of Ghazim, a Turk, who is said to have led his armies seventeen times into India. From his time the Punjab , except for a bri

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

Modern history as a whole, in contrast with mediæval, is marked by several plainly defined characteristics. They are such as appear, however, in a less developed form, in the latter part of the Middle Ages. 1. In the recent centuries, there has been an increased tendency to consolidate smaller states into larger kingdoms. 2. There has been a gradual secularizing of politics. Governments have more and more cast off ecclesiastical control. 3. As another side of this last movement, political unity

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THE CONSOLIDATION OF MONARCHY: INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF MONARCHY: INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE.

CHARACTER OF THIS PERIOD.—In this period monarchy, especially in France, England, and Spain, acquires new strength and extension. The period includes the reigns of three kings who did much to help forward this change: Louis XI. of France, Henry VII. of England, and Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. The Italian wars begin with the French invasion of Italy: the rivalship of the kingdoms, and the struggles pertaining to the balance of power, are thus initiated. In this period fall new inventions whi

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I. FRANCE.

I. FRANCE.

CHARLES VII. AND THE NOBLES.—The result of the hundred-years' war was the acquisition of Aquitaine by the French crown. Aquitaine was incorporated in France. Southern Gaul and Northern Gaul were now one. During the last years of Charles VII. , his kingdom was comparatively peaceful. Its prosperity revived. A new sort of feudalism had sprung up in the room of the old noblesse, whose power had been crushed. The new nobility was made up of relatives of the royal family, as the Dukes of Burgundy, Be

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II. ENGLAND.

II. ENGLAND.

WAR OF THE ROSES: THE HOUSE OF YORK.—The crown in England had come to be considered as the property of a family, to which the legitimate heir had a sacred claim. The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) grew out of family rivalries. It was a fight among nobles. But other reasons were not without influence. The party of York (whose badge was the white rose) was the popular party, which had its strength in Kent and in the trading cities. It went for reform of government. The party of Lancaster (whose bad

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III. SPAIN.

III. SPAIN.

FERDINAND OF ARAGON (1479-15l6).—The union of Aragon and Castile , by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1474-1504), was nominal, as each sovereign reigned independently in his own dominion. But both sovereigns were bent on the same end,—that of subjecting the powerful grandees and feudal lords to their authority. In this policy they found efficient helpers in the shrewd and loyal counselor Mendoza , Cardinal and Archbishop of Toledo, and in Ximenes , who combined the qualities of a prelate

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IV. GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE.

IV. GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE.

FREDERICK III. (1440-1493).—While England, France , and Spain were organizing monarchy, Italy and Germany kept up the anarchical condition of the Middle Ages. Hence these countries, first Italy and then Germany , became enticing fields of conquest for other nations. Frederick III. was the last emperor crowned at Rome (1452), and only one other emperor after him was crowned by the Pope. Frederick reigned longer than any other German king before or after him. He lacked energy, neglected the empire

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THE MEDICI.

THE MEDICI.

Giovanni d' Medici, d. 1429. | +—COSMO ("Father of his Country"), d. 1464. | | | +—PIERO, d. 1469. | | | +—LORENZO (the Magnificent), d. 1492. | | | | | +—Maddelena. | | | | | +—PIERO d. 1503 | | | | | | | +—LORENZO II, Duke of Urbino, d. 1510. | | | | | | | +—Catharine, m. Henry II of France. | | | | | | | +—ALESSANDRO, First Duke of Florence, 1531-1537. | | | | | +—GIOVANNI (Pope Leo X), d. 1521. | | | | | +—GIULIANO, Duke of Nemours, d. 1516. | | | | | +—Ippolito (Cardinal), d. 1535. | | | +—

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THE OTTOMAN SULTANS.

THE OTTOMAN SULTANS.

OTHMAN, 1307-1325. | +—ORCHAN, 1325-1359. | | | +—AMURATH I, 1359-1389. | | | +—BAJEZET I, 1389-1402. | | | +—Soliman, 1402-1410. | | | +—Musa, 1410-1413. | | | +—Issa. | | | +—MOHAMMED I, 1413-1421. | | | +—AMURATH II, 1421-1451. | | | +—MOHAMMED II, 1451-1481. | | | +—BAJEZET II, 1481-1512. | | | | | +—SELIM I, 1512-1520. | | | | | +—SOLIMAN I, 1520-1566. | | | | | +—SELIM II, 1566-1574. | | | | | +—AMURATH III, 1574-1595. | | | | | +—MOHAMMED III, 1595-1603. | | | | | +—ACHMET I, 1603-1617. |

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RUSSIA.

RUSSIA.

IVAN III, Vassilievitch, 1462-1505, m. Sophia, daughter of Thomas Palaeologus, brother of Emperor Constantine XIII. | +—BASIL IV, 1505-1533. | +—IVAN IV,[1] 1533-1584, | m. | +—Anastasia | | | | HOUSE OF ROMANOFF | | | +—Nicetas. | | | +—Mary [4] (Marta the Nun), m. | Theodore (Philaret the Metropolitan). | | | +—MICHAEL, 1613-1645. | | | +—ALEXIS, 1645-1676. | | | +—THEODORE, 1676-1682. | |

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VII. RUSSIA.

VII. RUSSIA.

RUSSIA: IVAN III.—For two centuries Russia paid tribute to the Tartar conquerors in the South, the "Golden Horde" (p. 283). The liberator of his people from this yoke was Ivan III .,—Ivan the Great,—(1462-1505). In the period when the nations of the West were becoming organized, Russia escaped from its servitude, and made some beginnings of intellectual progress. Ivan was a cold and calculating man, who preferred to negotiate rather than to fight; but he inflicted savage punishments, and even "h

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ENGLAND.—THE TUDORS AND STUARTS.

ENGLAND.—THE TUDORS AND STUARTS.

HENRY VII, 1485-1509, m. Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. | +—Margaret, m. James IV of Scotland. | | | +—James V. | | | +—Mary, Queen of Scots. | | | +—JAMES I, 1603-1625, m. | Anne, daughter of Frederick II of Denmark. | | | +—3, CHARLES I, 1625-1649, m. | | Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV of France. | | | | | +—CHARLES II, 1660-1685, m. | | | Catharine, daughter of John IV of Portugal. | | | | | +—Mary, m. William II, Prince of Orange. | | | | | | | +—WILLIAM III, 1688-1702. | | | m. |

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CHAPTER II. INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE.

CHAPTER II. INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE.

We have glanced at the new life of Europe in its political manifestations. We have now to view this new life in other relations: we have to inquire how it acted as a stimulus to intellectual effort in different directions. The term Renaissance is frequently applied at present not only to the "new birth" of art and letters, but to all the characteristics, taken together, of the period of transition from the Middle Ages to modern life. The transformation in the structure and policy of states, the

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

The general stir in men's minds, as indicated in the revival of learning and in remarkable inventions and discoveries, was equally manifest in great debates and changes in religion. One important element and fruit of the Renaissance is here seen. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the nations of Western Europe were all united in one Church, of which the Pope was the acknowledged head. There were differences as to the extent of his proper authority; sects had sprung up at different times;

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CHAPTER I. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, TO THE TREATY OF NUREMBERG (1517-1532).

CHAPTER I. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, TO THE TREATY OF NUREMBERG (1517-1532).

BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.—The Reformation began in Germany , where there was a great deal of discontent with the way in which the Church was governed and managed, and on account of the large amounts of money carried out of the country on various grounds for ecclesiastical uses at Rome. The leader of the movement, Martin Luther , was the son of a poor miner, and was born at Eisleben in 1483. He was an Augustinian monk, and had been made professor of theology, and preacher at Wittenberg , by t

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CHAPTER II. THE REFORMATION IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES: SWITZERLAND, DENMARK, SWEDEN, ENGLAND.

CHAPTER II. THE REFORMATION IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES: SWITZERLAND, DENMARK, SWEDEN, ENGLAND.

THE SWISS REFORMATION: ZWINGLI.—The founder of Protestantism in Switzerland was Ulrich Zwingli . He was born in 1484. His father was the leading man in a mountain village. The son, at Vienna and at Basel , became a proficient in the humanist studies. He read the Greek authors and the Bible in the original. A curate first at Glarus , and then at Einsiedeln , he became pastor at Zurich . As early as 1518 he preached against the sale of indulgences. He was a scholarly man, bluff and kindly in his w

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CHAPTER III. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, FROM THE PEACE OF NUREMBERG TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555).

CHAPTER III. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, FROM THE PEACE OF NUREMBERG TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555).

THE PARTIES IN GERMANY, 1532-1542.—For ten years after the Peace of Nuremberg , the Protestants in Germany were left unmolested. The menacing attitude of the Turks , and the occupations of the emperor in Italy and in other lands, rendered it impossible to interfere with them. Philip , the Landgrave of Hesse, a chivalrous Protestant prince, led the way in the armed restoration of Duke Ulrich of Würtemberg , who had been driven out of his dominion. Thus a Protestant prince was established in the h

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CHAPTER IV. CALVINISM IN GENEVA: BEGINNING OF THE CATHOLIC COUNTER-REFORMATION.

CHAPTER IV. CALVINISM IN GENEVA: BEGINNING OF THE CATHOLIC COUNTER-REFORMATION.

CALVIN.—Second in reputation to Luther only, among the founders of Protestantism, is John Calvin . He was a Frenchman, born in 1509, and was consequently a child when the Saxon Reformation began. He was keen and logical in his mental habit, with a great organizing capacity, naturally of a retiring temper, yet fearless, and endued with extraordinary intensity and firmness of will. A more finished scholar than Luther, he lacked his geniality and tenderness, and his imaginative power. Calvin first

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CHAPTER V. PHILIP II., AND THE BEVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS.

CHAPTER V. PHILIP II., AND THE BEVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS.

CHARACTER OF PHILIP II.—In 1555 Charles V., enfeebled by his lifelong enemy, the gout, resigned his crowns, and devolved on his son, Philip II. , the government of the Netherlands , together with the rest of his dominions in Spain , Italy , and America . The closing part of his life, the emperor passed in the secluded convent of Yuste , in Spain, where, notwithstanding the time spent by him in religious exercises, and in his favorite diversion of experimenting with clocks and watches, he remaine

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CHAPTER VI. THE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE, TO THE DEATH OF HENRY IV. (1610).

CHAPTER VI. THE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE, TO THE DEATH OF HENRY IV. (1610).

FRANCIS I.: HENRY II.—In France, the old faith had strong support in the Sorbonne , the influential theological faculty of the University of Paris, and in the Parliament. The new culture, the influx of Italian scholars and Italian influences, produced a party averse to the former style of education, and, to some extent, unfriendly to the old opinions. The Lutheran doctrines were first introduced; but it was Calvinism which prevailed among the French converts to Protestantism, and acquired a stro

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SECOND STAGE IN THE WAR (1629-1632).

SECOND STAGE IN THE WAR (1629-1632).

In the second act of this long drama, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden is the hero. His reign is marked by the rise of his country to the height of its power. EVENTS IN SWEDEN: CAREER OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.— Gustavus Vasa made the mistake of undertaking to divide power among his four sons. There was a vein of eccentricity, amounting sometimes to insanity, in the family. Eric XIV . was hasty and jealous, imprisoned his brother John , and committed reckless crimes. In 1569 he was himself confined, and n

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FRANCE.—THE BOURBON KINGS.

FRANCE.—THE BOURBON KINGS.

HENRY IV, 1589-1610, (2), m. Mary, daughter of Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany | +—LOUIS XIII, 1610-1643, m. | Anne, daughter of Philip III of Spain. | | | +—LOUIS XIV, 1643-1715, m. Maria Theresa, | | daughter of Philip IV of Spain. | | | | | +—Louis, Dauphin, d. 1711, m. Maria Anna, | | | daughter of Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria. | | | | | | | +—Louis, Duke of Burgundy, d. 1712, m. | | | Mary Adelaide, daughter of Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. | | | | | | | +—LOUIS XV, 1715-1774, m. | | |

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THIRD STAGE IN THE WAR (1632-1648).

THIRD STAGE IN THE WAR (1632-1648).

FRANCE AFTER HENRY IV.—After the death of Gustavus , in the new phase of the war, the influence of Richelieu , the great minister of France, becomes more and more dominant. Germany was in the end doomed to eat the bitter fruits of civil war, such as spring from foreign interference, even when it comes in the form of help. Henry IV . had died when he was on the point of directing the power of France, as of old, against the house of Hapsburg. The country now fell back for a series of years to a st

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CHAPTER VIII. SECOND STAGE OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND: TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH (1547-1603).

CHAPTER VIII. SECOND STAGE OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND: TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH (1547-1603).

REIGN OF EDWARD VI. (1547-1553).— Henry VIII ., with Parliament, had determined the order of succession, giving precedence to Edward , his son by Jane Seymour , over the two princesses, Mary , the daughter of Catherine , and Elizabeth , the daughter of Anne Boleyn . Edward VI ., who was but ten years old at his accession, was weak in body, but was a most remarkable instance of intellectual precocity. The government now espoused the Protestant side. Somerset , the king's uncle, was at the head of

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CHAPTER IX. THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION AND THE COMMONWEALTH (1603-1658).

CHAPTER IX. THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION AND THE COMMONWEALTH (1603-1658).

JAMES I.— James VI . of Scotland, and I . of England, was the son of Mary Stuart and Darnley . Scotland and England were now united under one king. He was not wanting in acquirements, and plumed himself on his knowledge of theology. A conceited pedant, he was impatient of dissent from his opinions. In Scotland, among insubordinate nobles and the ministers of the Kirk,—who on one occasion went so far as to pull his sleeve when they addressed to him their rebukes,—he had hardly tasted the sweets o

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COLONIZATION IN AMERICA.

COLONIZATION IN AMERICA.

The European nations kept up their religious and political rivalship in exploring and colonizing the New World. FRENCH EXPLORERS.—The French and English sent their fishermen to the coasts of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia . French fishermen from Breton gave its name to Cape Breton . Francis I. sent out Verrazano , an Italian sailor, who is thought to have cruised along the coast of North America from Cape Fear northward (1524). Later, Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence as far as the site of

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SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE.

SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE.

ASTRONOMY.—In this period wonderful progress was made in astronomy. Copernicus , a German or Polish priest (1473-1543), detected the error of the Ptolemaic system, which made not the sun, but the earth, the center of the solar system. Thus a revolution was made in that science. Tycho Brahe , a Danish astronomer (1546-1601), was a most accurate and indefatigable observer, although he did not adopt the Copernican theory. His pupil Kepler (1571-1630) discovered those great principles respecting the

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I. CHINA.

I. CHINA.

THE JESUIT MISSIONS.—The Ming dynasty continued in power in China until 1644. About the middle of the sixteenth century the Portuguese came to the island of Macao, and commercial relations began between China and Europe. They brought opium into China, which had previously been imported overland from India. In 1583 Matteo Ricci , a Jesuit missionary, began his labors in China. He and his associates had great success. His knowledge of the book language was most remarkable. The concessions of the J

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II. JAPAN.

II. JAPAN.

FEUDAL SYSTEM.—In 1603 Iyéyasu , an eminent general, founded the Tokugawa dynasty, which continued until the resignation of the last Shôgun (or Tycoon) in 1867. The rulers of that line held their court at Yedo , which grew into a flourishing city. The long period of anarchy and bloodshed that had preceded, was brought to an end. Iyéyasu laid the foundation of a feudal system which his grandson Iyémitsu (1623-1650) completed. Japan was divided into fiefs, each under a daimiô for its chief, who en

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III. INDIA.

III. INDIA.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE.—In the latter half of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth centuries, the most of India was ruled by distinct Mohammedan dynasties. The dominion of the Afghan dynasty at Delhi was thus greatly reduced. In 1525 the Mughal (Mogul) Empire was founded by Babar , a descendant of Tamerlane. Babar invaded India, and defeated the Sultan of Delhi in the battle of Paniput . The new empire was not permanently established until his grandson Akbar (1556-1605), in a series of conquests, spre

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD.—One feature of this period is the efforts made by the nations to improve their condition, especially to increase the thrift and to raise the standing of the middle class. An illustration is what is called the "mercantile system" in France. Along with this change, there is progress in the direction of greater breadth in education and culture. In both of these movements, rulers and peoples cooperate. Monarchical power, upheld by standing armies, reaches its climax. The res

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CHAPTER I. THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE: FIRST PART OF THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. (TO THE PEACE OF RYSWICK, 1697): THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS: THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION OF 1688.

CHAPTER I. THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE: FIRST PART OF THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. (TO THE PEACE OF RYSWICK, 1697): THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS: THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION OF 1688.

LOUIS XIV.: MAZARIN.—The great minister Richelieu died in 1642. "Abroad, though a cardinal of the Church, he arrested the Catholic reaction, freed Northern from Southern Europe, and made toleration possible; at home, out of the broken fragments of her liberties and her national prosperity, he paved the way for the glory of France." He paved the way, also, for the despotism of her kings. He had been feared and hated by king and people, but had been obeyed by both. A few months later Louis XIII. ,

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CHAPTER II. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (TO THE PEACE OF UTRECHT, 1713); DECLINE OF THE POWER OF FRANCE: POWER AND MARITIME SUPREMACY OF ENGLAND.

CHAPTER II. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (TO THE PEACE OF UTRECHT, 1713); DECLINE OF THE POWER OF FRANCE: POWER AND MARITIME SUPREMACY OF ENGLAND.

OCCASION OF THE WAR.—The death of Charles II. of Spain (1700) was followed by the War of the Spanish Succession. The desire of Louis to have his hands free in the event of Charles's death had influenced him in making the Treaty of Rysivick . Charles had no children. It had been agreed in treaties, to which France was a party, that the Spanish monarchy should not be united either to Austria or to France; and that Archduke Charles, second son of the Emperor Leopold I. , should have Spain and the I

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CHAPTER III. THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR: THE FALL OP SWEDEN: GROWTH OF THE POWER OF RUSSIA.

CHAPTER III. THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR: THE FALL OP SWEDEN: GROWTH OF THE POWER OF RUSSIA.

SWEDEN.—The eventful epoch in the history of Sweden, in this period, is the reign of Charles XII. (1697-1718). At his accession, when he was only sixteen years old, Sweden ruled the Baltic. Its army was strong and well disciplined. What is now St. Petersburg was a patch of swampy ground in Swedish territory, where a few fishermen lived in their huts. The youth of Charles was prophetic of his career. In doors, he read the exploits of Alexander the Great; out of doors, gymnastic sports and the hun

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CHAPTER IV. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION; GROWTH OP THE POWER OF PRUSSIA: THE DESTRUCTION OF POLAND.

CHAPTER IV. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION; GROWTH OP THE POWER OF PRUSSIA: THE DESTRUCTION OF POLAND.

THE PRAGMATIC SANCTION.—On the death of Augustus II. , there were two competitors for the Polish crown,—his son, Augustus III. of Saxony, and Stanislaus Lesczinski whom France supported. After a contest, by the consent of the Emperor Charles VI. , Lesczinski , whose daughter had married Louis XV. , obtained the duchy of Lorraine , which thus became a possession of France (1735). In return, the emperor's son-in-law, Francis Stephen (afterwards Francis I. ), was to have Tuscany ; and France, in co

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CHAPTER V. CONTEST OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA: WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

CHAPTER V. CONTEST OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA: WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

In this period the United States of America achieved their independence, and began their existence as a distinct nation. THE ENGLISH COLONIES.—The English colonies south of Canada had become thirteen in number. In the southern part of what was called Carolina, Charleston was settled in 1680. More than a century before (1562), a band of Huguenots under Ribault had entered the harbor of Port Royal , and given this name to it, and had built a fort on the river May, which they called Charlesfort —th

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LITERATURE.

LITERATURE.

POETRY AND THE DRAMA.—The literature of France in the age of Louis XIV . was classical in its spirit. The ancient Greek and Roman writers were admired and imitated. The Renaissance was now to run its course. The French Academy, founded by Richelieu , undertook to regulate and improve the French language. Measure, finish, elegance, were demanded by the reigning taste, in all literary productions. Corneille (1606-1684), the father of French tragedy, was the most virile of the French dramatists. Ra

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II. GERMANY.

II. GERMANY.

In Germany, the great name in philosophy is that of Leibnitz (1646-1716), a rival of Newton in mathematics and natural science, and an eminent thinker in metaphysics, theology, and in jurisprudence. In intellect and in variety of attainments, he is almost the peer of Aristotle . Wolf (1679-1754) his disciple, systemized and modified his philosophical views. Klopstock (1724-1803), the author of Messiah , written somewhat after the manner of the Paradise Lost of Milton , excelled the other German

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III. ITALY.

III. ITALY.

In the eighteenth century, there was a new revival of literature in Italy. Vico (1668-1744) almost made an epoch in the scientific treatment of history and mythology; in political economy and in archeology, there were numerous explorers; Florence became once more a seat of learning. Beccaria (1738-1794) by his writings introduced more humane views in criminal jurisprudence. Volta (1745-1827), an electrician, constructed the instrument called the voltaic pile. Metastasio (1698-1782) fostered the

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IV. ENGLAND.

IV. ENGLAND.

In England, after the Restoration, the influence of French standards in literature is obvious. The drama declined, partly from the earlier antagonism of the Puritans, and partly from the rage for indecency which infected the dramatic writers,—even those of much ability, as Congreve ,—and defiled the stage. The Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan (1628-88) is written in a plain, unaffected style, and is the most popular work of that age. In sharp contrast with Bunyan is Butler's Hudibras , a witty satir

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V. AMERICA.

V. AMERICA.

The most notable American writers before the War of Independence were Jonathan Edwards (1703-58), a great metaphysical genius, and the founder of a school in theology; and Benjamin Franklin (1706-90), whose writings, in excellent English, related mainly to ethical and economical topics. As the Revolution approached, there sprung up authors of ability on the political questions of the day. The Federalist , written after the war, by Hamilton, Madison , and Jay , in favor of the proposed Constituti

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NATURAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

NATURAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

The inductive method, or the "Baconian" method of observation and experiment, began to bear rich fruits. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) not only discovered the law of gravitation: other discoveries by him in mechanics and optics were of great moment in the progress of those sciences. Fluxions, or the differential calculus, was discovered independently by both Newton and Leibnitz . Euler , a Swiss mathematician of the highest ability (1707-1783), contributed essentially to the advancement of mechan

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RELIGION AND THEOLOGY.

RELIGION AND THEOLOGY.

ENGLISH DEISM.—The religious debates and the religious wars of the seventeenth century were followed by much indifference and disbelief in the eighteenth. Weariness with sectarian struggles, and revolt against the yoke of creeds, were pushed to the extreme of a denial of revealed religion,—finally, in France, to a denial of the truths of natural religion also. In England, there appeared a school of deistical writers, beginning earlier with Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1648), and continued thro

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ESSAYS AT POLITICAL REFORM.

ESSAYS AT POLITICAL REFORM.

RUSSIA: GERMANY.—The minds of men were unsettled, not only by the prevalent tone of literature and speculation, but by governmental changes and reforms. The disposition was to introduce French methods of administration. Catherine II. of Russia (1762-1796) tried the experiment of various judicial and educational reforms. Frederick the Great , with more wisdom and consistency, introduced many changes for the benefit of the industrial class. The most sweeping reforms were undertaken by the Emperor

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

CHARACTER OF THE REVOLUTION.—The French Revolution was a tremendous upheaval of society, which brought with it the abolition of feudalism and monarchy, and the securing of an equality of political rights. Its immediate result in France was the establishment of a democratic republic, followed by an empire resting on military power. Its conquests, and the predominance of France, provoked an uprising of the other European peoples in behalf of national independence. This overthrew the French empire,

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CHAPTER I. FROM THE ASSEMBLING OF THE STATES GENERAL TO THE EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. (1789-1793).

CHAPTER I. FROM THE ASSEMBLING OF THE STATES GENERAL TO THE EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. (1789-1793).

LOUIS XVI. (1774-92): THE QUEEN.— Louis XVI . differed from his two predecessors in being morally pure, and benevolent in his feelings; but he was of a dull mind, void of energy, and with an obstinacy of character that did not supply the place of an enlightened firmness. He had married (1770) Marie Antoinette , the daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa . The vivacious young queen, as well as the youthful king, at first charmed the people. But her disregard of court etiquette, and her gay, impuls

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THE BONAPARTES

THE BONAPARTES

Charles Bonaparte, m. Letitia Ramolino. | +—1, Joseph, King of Spain, d. 1844. | | | | +—Lucien, Cardinal. | | | | +—Zénaïde, | m. | +—Charles, d. 1857 | | +—3, Lucien, Prince of Canino, d .1840. | | | +—Lucien. | | | +—Pierre. | +—2, NAPOLEON I, 1804-1814, (deposed, d. 1821), m. | (1), Maria Louisa, daughter of Emperor Francis II. | | | +—Napoleon, Duke of Reichstadt (Napoleon II), d. 1832. | | (2), Josephine, m. General Beauharnais. | | | +—Eugene, Duke of Leuchtenberg, d. 1824. m. | | Augusta

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CHAPTER III. FROM THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE TO THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON (1794-1804).

CHAPTER III. FROM THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE TO THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON (1794-1804).

FALL OF ROBESPIERRE (9TH THERMIDOR).—A reaction set in against the cruelties of Jacobinism. Men—even the judges of the murderous tribunal—grew weary of bloodshed. The authority of Robespierre began to wane, even with his colleagues. The assembly at length turned against him. On July 27 (the 9th Thermidor , according to the new calendar) he was arrested. He was released, but was again seized, and, with St. Just, Couthon , and most of the leaders of the commune, was guillotined. Bare statistics, a

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CHAPTER IV. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIBE TO THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN (1804-1812).

CHAPTER IV. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIBE TO THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN (1804-1812).

THE EMPIRE (1804).—Various attempts had been made against Napoleon's life. An "infernal machine" was exploded near his carriage. On that occasion, only the swift driving of the coachman saved him from death (1800). There were now royalist plots against his life, of which Count d'Artois was cognizant. Pichegru was an accomplice; and Moreau , although not favoring the restoration of the Bourbons, was not entirely innocent. The former died in prison; Moreau escaped to America. Napoleon, exasperated

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CHAPTER V. FROM THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN (1812) TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1814-15).

CHAPTER V. FROM THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN (1812) TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1814-15).

THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN—The circumstances narrated above did not prevent Napoleon from the fatal mistake of invading Russia . The czar would not enforce the commercial restrictions. Napoleon refused to promise not to restore the kingdom of Poland . There were various other causes of mutual jealousy and coolness. Sweden , under Bernadotte , which had been forced to declare war against England (1810), now joined Russia . Austria and Prussia , in their state of practical vassalage, had to furnish mili

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CHAPTER VI. AMERICAN HISTORY IN THIS PERIOD (1789-1815).

CHAPTER VI. AMERICAN HISTORY IN THIS PERIOD (1789-1815).

THE TWO PARTIES.—The cabinet of Washington consisted of four members. The secretary of the treasury was Alexander Hamilton of New York. The secretary of state was Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. The seat of government was placed at Philadelphia ; but in 1800 it was removed to the District of Columbia , which was ceded for the purpose by Virginia and Maryland. Almost from the beginning, there were two political parties. The Federalists were made up of those who had been most in favor of the new Con

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CHAPTER VII. LITERATURE, ART, AND SCIENCE (1789-1815).

CHAPTER VII. LITERATURE, ART, AND SCIENCE (1789-1815).

NEW SPIRIT IN LITERATURE.—In the latter part of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth centuries, literature broke away from the artificial rules and the one-sided intellectual tone of the "classical" school,—that school which had prevailed through the influence of the French writers of the age of Louis XIV. The new era was marked by more spontaneity, and a return to nature, and by a more free rein given to imagination and feeling. "Romanticism," a general designation of the results

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

POLITICAL CHANGES IN EUROPE.—The aspiration of the peoples of Europe after constitutional freedom and national unity, after the yoke of Napoleon had been thrown off, was for a long season baffled. This was owing partly to the lassitude natural after the protracted and exhausting wars, and more to the combination of the principal sovereigns, instigated by the love of power and the dread of revolution, for the purpose of preventing the popular yearning from being gratified. But in 1830—when half o

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CHAPTER I. EUROPE, FROM THE CONGRESS OP VIENNA (1815) TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830.

CHAPTER I. EUROPE, FROM THE CONGRESS OP VIENNA (1815) TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830.

GERMANY: THE HOLY ALLIANCE.—The years of peace which followed the War of Liberation produced a signal increase of thrift and of culture in Germany. But they brought also a grievous disappointment of ardent political hopes. There was a feeling of national brotherhood, which that struggle had engendered,—such a feeling as Germans had not experienced for centuries before. Constitutional government and German unity were objects of earnest desire. Frederick William III. , the king of Prussia (1797-18

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CHAPTER II. EUROPE FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 TO THE REVOLUTIONARY EPOCH OF 1848.

CHAPTER II. EUROPE FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 TO THE REVOLUTIONARY EPOCH OF 1848.

CHARLES X.— Louis XVIII . died in 1824. His brother, Charles X . (1824-30), dealt generously with the collateral branch of the Bourbons, the house of Orleans . He restored to Louis Philippe , the son of that Philip Egalite whose base career was ended by the guillotine (p. 512), the vast estates of the Orleans family, and gave him the title of "Royal Highness." But he failed to secure the cordial support of this ambitious relative. The Duke of Orleans stood well with the king, but was on good ter

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CHAPTER III. EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 TO THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1866).

CHAPTER III. EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 TO THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1866).

DISTURBANCES IN GERMANY.—The effect of the revolution which dethroned Louis Philippe was felt like an electric shock through all Europe. It was experienced immediately in the smaller states of Germany. New ministries were installed, which were pledged to a liberal policy. Louis of Bavaria resigned the crown to his son Maximilian . The Grand Duke of Baden agreed to the demands of a popular convention at Mannheim , and he placed a liberal ministry in control of the government. Prussia and Austria

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CHAPTER IV. EUROPE, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR TO THE END OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1866-1871).

CHAPTER IV. EUROPE, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR TO THE END OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1866-1871).

RIVALSHIP OF PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA.—The brief but mighty struggle which secured for Prussia the preponderance in Germany grew immediately out of complications respecting Schleswig-Holstein . It was, however, the fruit of a rivalship which had been gaining in intensity since the times of Frederick the Great. It was the grand triumph of Prussia, after a long succession of defeats and humiliations in the field of diplomacy. SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN.—The two duchies of Holstein and Schleswig had long been a

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CHAPTER V. EUROPE, THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC, AND THE UNION OF ITALY (1871-).

CHAPTER V. EUROPE, THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC, AND THE UNION OF ITALY (1871-).

COMPLETED UNION OF ITALY.—When the war between Prussia and France broke out, the republicans in Italy were disposed to take possession of Rome at once. Mazzini urged them to this step. The king, however, was bound by the agreement with France to prevent this action; which, moreover, might have divided, instead of uniting, Italy. Mazzini was arrested, and sent to Gaeta . But with the fall of Napoleon, on the declaration of Jules Favre that the "September Convention" (p. 574) was at an end, Victor

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MEXICO.

MEXICO.

THE FRENCH INVASION: MAXIMILLIAN.—After the close of the war with the United States (1848), there continued to be a war of factions in Mexico. There was a democratic party, which obtained the upper hand in 1857, but was opposed by the church party. The clergy and the religious bodies were possessed of nearly one-half of the landed property in the country. Benito Juarez , who had been chief justice, became president; but he was resisted by the clerical party, with their military supporters, and t

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SOUTH AMERICA.

SOUTH AMERICA.

BRAZIL.—After returning to Portugal, King John recognized the independence of Brazil, and his son Dom Pedro as emperor of the country (1825), although John kept the title during his lifetime (p. 553). The two crowns were not to be united. On the death of his father (1826), Dom Pedro resigned his claim to the throne of Portugal. His subsequent career in Brazil was a troublous one, owing to his contest with a liberal party. He returned to Spain in 1831. After his departure there were party contest

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CHINA AND JAPAN.

CHINA AND JAPAN.

CHINA AND FOREIGN NATIONS: THE TAIPING REBELLION.—In the recent period, there has been a gradual but grudging and reluctant opening of China to commercial intercourse with foreign nations, and to the labors of Christian missionaries. In 1840 there began the first war with Great Britain, called the "opium war" for the reason that it was caused by the Chinese prohibition of the importing of that article. In the treaty at the end of the war, five ports were made free to British trade; Hong-Kong was

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CHAPTER VII. THE LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

CHAPTER VII. THE LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

During the last decade of the nineteenth century tendencies which years before had begun to appear became the dominant feature of the European situation. The old ideals of the Manchester school—freer trade, more intimate and peaceful intercourse between nations, the right of each people to control its destiny, the development of liberal institutions—gave way to a policy of high protective tariffs and bitter commercial warfare, of constant increase in armaments, of eager rivalry in seizing the te

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PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.

PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.

PHILOSOPHY IN FRANCE.— Victor Cousin (1792—1867), a brilliant thinker and eloquent lecturer and writer, founded in France the eclectic school of philosophy. He aimed to construct a positive view on the basis of previous systems, which he classified under four heads,— idealism , sensualism , skepticism , and mysticism . In his teaching, he sought a middle path between the German and the Scottish schools, leaning now more decidedly to the one, and now to the other. Jouffroy (1796-1842), the most p

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PHILANTHROPIC REFORM.

PHILANTHROPIC REFORM.

In a survey of the course of recent history, notice should be taken of the increased activity of a humane spirit in the several nations. 1. SOCIAL SCIENCE.—The investigation of social evils and of their proper remedies, and of the laws which govern man in his social relations, has received of late the name of social science . In 1857 a meeting in London , over which Lord Brougham presided, resulted in the organization of a society of persons interested in different forms of social improvement, b

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PROGRESS TOWARDS THE UNITY OF MANKIND.

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE UNITY OF MANKIND.

UNITY AMID DIVERSITY.—The path of human progress has led in the direction of unity as the ultimate goal. It is, however, a unity in variety toward which the course of history has moved. The development and growth of distinct nations, each after its own type, and, not less, the freedom of the individual to realize the destiny intended for him by nature, are necessary to the full development of mankind,—necessary to the perfection of the race. The final unity that is sought is to be reached, not b

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