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FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS
FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS
THE OUTDOOR WORLD SERIES. THE OUTDOOR WORLD; or, the Young Collector's Handbook. By W. S. Furneaux . With 18 Plates (16 of which are coloured), and 549 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6 s. net. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS ( British ). By W. S. Furneaux . With 12 coloured Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6 s. net. LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. S. Furneaux . With 8 coloured Plates and 331 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6 s. net.
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PREFACE
PREFACE
This additional volume to the young naturalist's 'Outdoor World Series' is an attempt to provide a guide to the study of our wild plants, shrubs and trees—a guide which, though comparatively free from technical terms and expressions, shall yet be strictly correct and scientific. The leading feature of the book is the arrangement of the plants and trees according to their seasons, habitats and habits; an arrangement which will undoubtedly be of the greatest assistance to the lover of wild flowers
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COLOURED PLATES
COLOURED PLATES
Erratum. —On Plate VI, for 'Spring Rest Harrow' read 'Spiny Rest Harrow.'...
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The Root
The Root
The root is that portion of the plant which descends into the soil for the absorption of the mineral food required. It really serves a double purpose, for, in addition to the function just mentioned, it fixes the plant in its place, thus forming a basis of support for the stem and its appendages. Forms of Roots 1. Simple fibrous. 2. Branched fibrous. 3. Tap root. 4. Tuberous root. Roots are capable of absorbing liquids only, and all fertile soils contain more or less soluble mineral matter which
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The Stem
The Stem
The stems of plants exhibit a much greater variety of structure and habit than do the roots. Their chief functions are to support the leaves and flowers, and to arrange these parts in such a manner that they obtain the maximum of light and air; also to form a means of communication by which the sap may pass in either direction. Stems also frequently help to protect the plant, either by the development of thorns or prickles, or by producing hairs which prevent snails and slugs from reaching and d
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The Leaf
The Leaf
The arrangement of the leaves on the stem is a matter of great importance for purposes of identification. Especially should it be noted whether the leaves are opposite , alternate , whorled (arranged in circles round the stem), or radical (apparently starting direct from the root). Some leaves have smaller leaves or scales at their bases, that is, at the points where they are attached to the stem of the plant. Such leaves or scales are termed stipules . They are often so well developed that they
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Inflorescence
Inflorescence
We must now turn our attention to the different kinds of inflorescence or arrangement of flowers. Flowers are commonly mounted on stalks ( peduncles ), but in many cases they have no stalks, being attached directly to the stem of the plant, and therefore said to be sessile . Whether stalked or sessile, if they arise from the axils of the leaves—the angles formed by the leafstalks and the stem—they are said to be axillary. When only one flower grows on a stalk it is said to be solitary ; but in m
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The Flower
The Flower
A flower, if complete in all its parts, consists of modified leaves arranged in four distinct whorls, the parts being directly or indirectly attached to a receptacle. The outer whorl is the calyx , and is composed of parts called sepals , which may be either united or distinct. The calyx is usually green; but, in some cases, is more or less highly coloured. Sometimes the calyx is quite free from the pistil or central part of the flower, the sides of which are thus left naked, and the calyx is th
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The Fruit and Seed
The Fruit and Seed
Dehiscent Fruits 1. Pod. 2. Siliqua. 3. Silicula. 4. Follicles(cluster of three). 5. Capsule splitting longitudinally. 6. Capsule splitting transversely. 7. Capsule splitting by pores. After the ovules have been impregnated by the pollen they develop into seeds, each of which consists of or contains an embryo plant; and, at the same time, the ovary itself enlarges, changing its character more or less, till it becomes a ripened fruit . Fruits vary very considerably in their general characters, bu
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Classification of Flowering Plants
Classification of Flowering Plants
Our flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the dicotyledons and the monocotyledons . These terms suggest that the division is based on the nature of the seed, which is really the case, but the groups are characterised by differences in other parts. Thus, the plants which produce seeds with two cotyledons may be known by the nature of the stem, which consists of a central pith, surrounded by wood arranged in one or more rings, and the whole enclosed in an outer epidermis or in a bark.
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SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS
SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS
1. Ranunculaceæ. —Herbs mostly with alternate leaves and regular flowers. Sepals generally 5, distinct. Petals 5 or more. Stamens 12 or more. Pistil of many distinct carpels. Fruit of many one-seeded achenes. (The Buttercup Family.) 2. Berberidaceæ. —Shrub with compound spines; alternate, spiny leaves; and pendulous flowers. Sepals 6. Petals 6. Stamens 6. Fruit a berry. (The Berberry Family.) 3. Nymphæaceæ. —Aquatic plants with floating leaves and solitary flowers. Petals numerous, gradually pas
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II THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS
II THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS
Since flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant it seems only natural to suppose that the wonderful variety of colour and form which they exhibit might have some connexion with the processes concerned in the propagation of their respective species, and the more we study the nature of the flowers and observe the methods by which pollen is transferred from stamens to stigmas, the stronger becomes our conviction that the diversities mentioned are all more or less connected with the one great
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III CLIMBING PLANTS
III CLIMBING PLANTS
Many plants have stems which grow to a considerable length, and which are at the same time too weak to support the plants in the erect position. A considerable number of these show no tendency to assume an upward direction, but simply trail along the surface of the ground, often producing root fibres at their nodes to give them a firmer hold on the soil and to absorb additional supplies of water and mineral food. Some, however, grow in the midst of the shrubs and tall herbage of thickets and hed
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IV EARLY SPRING
IV EARLY SPRING
The work of the botanist is light during the early spring, especially if his attention is directed only to plants and trees in their flowering stages; but, to one whose ambition is to study Nature in all her varied phases, this season of the bursting of the bud, when all things are awakening into new life, is full of interest, and demands no small amount of time. The first flowers observed in the spring are mainly those hardy weeds which may be seen in bloom almost through the year, such as the
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V WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING
V WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING
One of our earliest spring flowers of the wood is the lovely Daffodil or Lent Lily ( Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus ) of the order Amaryllidaceæ . This plant develops from a bulb—an underground bud formed of thick, fleshy leaves; and the flowers appear during March and April. The perianth is composed of a tube and six spreading limbs of a delicate yellow colour; and a deep, bell-shaped, golden coronet, beautifully notched and curled at the rim. The Daffodil. During April and May we meet with the bea
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VI THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS, AND HEDGEROWS
VI THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS, AND HEDGEROWS
Having considered the principal low-growing flowers of the woods, we must now give some attention to the trees and shrubs of the same localities. This portion of the field-naturalist's work will be found at least as fascinating as the observation of the herbaceous plants, for although the flowers of trees are often small and very inconspicuous, many are really beautiful blossoms, and all present features of more or less interest to the botanist. Moreover, the observations of these flowers will a
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VII WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING
VII WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING
In the present chapter we shall consider a number of wild flowers that are to be found by the waysides, including banks and hedgerows, and in waste places, during the spring months. Our first example is the Celandine ( Chelidonium majus ), of the Poppy family (order Papaveraceæ ), generally spoken of as the Greater Celandine in order to distinguish it from the Lesser Celandine (p. 108 ), which belongs to the Ranunculaceæ . This plant is moderately common in shady hedgerows and waste places, grow
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VIII MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES—SPRING
VIII MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES—SPRING
It is, of course, impossible to draw a hard and fast line between the flowers of spring and those of summer, for not only does each individual species vary in the time of its first appearance, according to the nature of the season, but many of the spring and summer flowers overlap in such a manner that it is difficult to decide which season has the greater claim to each one. In the present chapter, however, we shall include those flowers of our fields and meadows which usually commence to bloom
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IX BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES IN SPRING
IX BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES IN SPRING
The cold soils of bogs, marshes, and other wet places do not produce a very great variety of flowers during the spring months; but some there are which appear in great profusion; and others, though less conspicuous, are sufficiently abundant and interesting to be included in our list. Our first is the beautiful Marsh Marigold ( Caltha palustris ) of the Buttercup family ( Ranunculaceæ ), which is exceedingly abundant in marshes and by the sides of muddy ditches in most parts of Britain, flowerin
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X WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER
X WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER
A large number of the flowers that grow in woods bloom early in the spring, before the buds of the trees have expanded, or, at least, before the foliage is sufficiently dense to cover the ground with its shadow. Some, however, are not so dependent on the direct rays of the sun, but thrive even better in the shaded, moist atmosphere of wooded ground. Others there are which seem grateful for the warm rays of the summer sun, but grow to their greatest luxuriance in the moist and partially-shaded gr
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XI WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER
XI WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER
It will probably have been noticed that several of the spring flowers of our waysides and waste places continue to bloom into the summer. Descriptions of these will, of course, not be repeated here, but, for the convenience of those who are endeavouring to identify flowers which have been gathered during the summer months, we append a list of the species referred to: Plants of the Wayside and Waste Ground that bloom during both Spring and Summer The flowers described in the present chapter are t
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XII WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SUMMER (Continued)
XII WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SUMMER (Continued)
Composite Flowers There are so many flowers of the order Compositæ in bloom by the wayside and on waste ground during the summer months that we devote a chapter entirely to them. This group is the largest of the natural orders, and is computed to contain about a tenth of all the known flowering plants. The chief distinguishing characteristic of the order is the arrangement of the flowers into crowded heads, each consisting of a number of little flowers or florets that are sessile on a common rec
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XIII WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER (Continued)
XIII WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER (Continued)
Continuing our list of the numerous wayside flowers of the summer months, we take first the Rampion Bellflower or Ramps ( Campanula Rapunculus ), of the order Campanulaceæ . The flowers of this order are usually easily distinguished by their bell-shaped corolla, mounted on an inferior ovary, and by their general resemblance to the Canterbury Bells so familiar to us as favourite garden flowers. The Rampion is to be seen on some of the sandy or gravelly wastes of the South of England during July a
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XIV MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES—SUMMER
XIV MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES—SUMMER
In the present chapter we shall briefly describe a considerable number of flowers which are to be seen in fields and pastures during the summer months; but we must remind the reader that many of the species previously mentioned in Chapter VIII as flowering in similar situations in the spring, continue to bloom during the whole or a portion of the summer. A list of these is given below; and it should be noted that the flowers described in this chapter are those which do not generally commence to
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XV BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES—SUMMER
XV BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES—SUMMER
The Crowfoot group of the Ranunculaceæ contains two bog-plants popularly known as Spearworts on account of their spear-like leaves. One of these—the Lesser Spearwort ( Ranunculus Flammula )—is abundant in wet places, especially the edges of muddy pools and ditches, where its buttercup-like flowers may be seen from June to September. It is a slender, smooth plant, with a branched stem, more or less decumbent at the base, from four to twelve inches high. Its leaves are narrow-oval in form, stalked
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XVI ON HEATH, DOWN AND MOOR
XVI ON HEATH, DOWN AND MOOR
On the exposed and more or less bleak heath, down and moor we do not meet with many species of spring flowers, and for this reason we have included both spring and summer blossoms in the same chapter. It must not be supposed, however, from the above statement, that we regard these exposed situations as devoid of interest, or even lacking in flowers, for the small number of species flowering early in the season is often compensated for by the profusion in which their blossoms are produced. The go
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XVII IN THE CORN FIELD
XVII IN THE CORN FIELD
The flowers included in the present chapter are to be found principally in cultivated fields; but since they are more particularly associated with corn crops, or occur so commonly in those fields in which grain is one of the products included in the rotation adopted, we separate them from the other flowers of the field, and consider them under the above head. It will be observed that the majority of the flowers thus dealt with are summer-bloomers that flower while the ears of corn are filling ou
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XVIII ON THE CHALK
XVIII ON THE CHALK
While some flowers are so universally distributed that they may be described as existing almost everywhere, others are restricted to certain kinds of localities, outside which they seldom occur. This restriction is sometimes merely one of light and shade, the same species growing almost equally luxuriantly in open spaces, or, in shady places, regardless of other conditions. Some plants, however, are particularly partial to certain conditions of soil, situation, or climate, and are consequently m
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XIX BY THE RIVER SIDE
XIX BY THE RIVER SIDE
We have already dealt with flowers that grow in various damp situations, as moist meadows, woods, &c.; but there are a few such which seem to be particularly partial to the banks of rivers, streams, and ditches: short descriptions of these will be placed separately in the present chapter. It will be understood from the foregoing remark that the species taken here form only a small proportion of the flowers that actually grow by the river side; for although the numerous species commonly s
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XX ON WALLS, ROCKS, AND STONY PLACES
XX ON WALLS, ROCKS, AND STONY PLACES
Several of our flowering plants are to be seen most frequently on walls and rocks, or in other situations where there is hardly a trace of soil of any kind. Some of these thrive in such dry spots, with often such free exposure to the rays of the spring or summer sun, that it is difficult to understand how they manage to survive the periods of drought through which they live until we become acquainted with certain peculiarities of their form and structure. In the first place we must recall the fa
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XXI FIELD AND WAYSIDE IN AUTUMN
XXI FIELD AND WAYSIDE IN AUTUMN
From the end of September onward the number of wild flowers is rapidly decreasing, but still there is much to be seen that will be interesting to the observant student of Nature. Many of the summer flowers are quite over, while others continue to bloom till, at last, they succumb to the intensifying frosts; but hundreds of species of the summer-flowering plants are now in fruit, and some of these are almost as interesting in this stage as when in flower. Many plants will have been observed in fl
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XXII AUTUMN IN THE WOODS
XXII AUTUMN IN THE WOODS
Although several of the flowers mentioned in the last chapter as blooming during the present season may be seen along the borders of woods, yet within the wood itself we are struck by the almost total absence of flowers. This loss, however, is compensated for by the beautiful and varied tints assumed by the leaves of the trees and shrubs. Important changes are now taking place in these perennial members of the vegetable world in preparation for the coming winter. The temperature of the soil is b
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XXIII PARASITIC PLANTS
XXIII PARASITIC PLANTS
A number of plants extract more or less of the organic material they require from other plants, and thus save themselves the labour of building up this material themselves. These are termed parasites; but we must be careful to distinguish between them and certain other plants which, though apparently parasitic, are not really so. One plant may climb on another, perhaps even producing "rootlets" by which it clings to its living support, and yet it may not be a parasite in the proper sense of the
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XXIV CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
XXIV CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
Quite a number of plants, belonging to different orders, are provided with the means of capturing small animals, and of digesting their prey and absorbing the nutrient matter thus obtained into their own systems. In this way they are enabled to obtain nitrogenous material which, in the ordinary way, is absorbed in the form of mineral solutions, from the soil, by the agency of the roots. The greater number of these carnivorous plants are to be found in tropical lands; but a few are British, and a
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LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITATS AND HABITS
LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITATS AND HABITS
The following list of wild flowers, classified according to their habits and principal habitats, will assist the student in his attempts to identify unknown species. A general acquaintance with the chief distinguishing features of the orders, or, failing this, a frequent reference to these features as given in Chapter I , will be a valuable help; and, the order once determined, the few particulars added to each name will generally narrow the search down to one or two species, leaving the final d
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