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Lessons In Music Form

Percy Goetschius

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FOREWORD.

FOREWORD.

The present manual treats of the structural designs of musical composition, not of the styles or species of music. Read our AFTERWORD. It undertakes the thorough explanation of each design or form, from the smallest to the largest; and such comparison as serves to demonstrate the principle of natural evolution, in the operation of which the entire system originates. This explanation—be it well understood—is conducted solely with a view to the Analysis of musical works, and is not calculated to p

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CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION.

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION.

THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC.—So much uncertainty and diversity of opinion exists among music lovers of every grade concerning the presence of Form in musical composition, and the necessity of its presence there, that a few general principles are submitted at the outset of our studies, as a guide to individual reflection and judgment on the subject. Certain apparently defensible prejudices that prevail in the minds of even advanced musical critics against the idea of Form in music, originate i

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[Illustration: first fragment of 8th Song]

[Illustration: first fragment of 8th Song]

and its inversion...

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[Illustration: second fragment of 8th Song]

[Illustration: second fragment of 8th Song]

run through the whole number. (5) The specific figure of the accompaniment is usually reproduced from measure to measure (or group to group) throughout whole sections of the piece. Observe, in the 37th Song Without Words, how constantly the ascending figure of six tones recurs in the lower part (left hand). Glance also at No. 30; No. 1; No. 25. Many other evidences of Unity are invariably present in good music, so naturally and self-evidently that they almost escape our notice. Some of these are

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[Illustration: Duple and Triple Rhythm]

[Illustration: Duple and Triple Rhythm]

This distinction is so significant and so striking, that the music lover who is eager to gain the first clues to the structural purpose of a composition, should endeavor to recognize which one of these two rhythmic species underlies the movement to which he is listening. It is fairly certain to be one or the other continuously. Of duple measure, the march and polka are familiar examples; of triple measure, the waltz and mazurka. The "regularity" of the former rhythm imparts a certain stability a

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[Illustration: Example 1. Fragment of Folk-song.]

[Illustration: Example 1. Fragment of Folk-song.]

The measure marked b is exactly like a . But c is all the more contrasting, on account of this similarity. Or, the melodic contents of a measure may be thus reproduced, as far as the rhythm and direction of the tones are concerned, but—for variety—they may be shifted to a higher or lower place upon the staff, or may be otherwise modified....

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[Illustration: Example 2. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 2. Fragment of Beethoven.]

Compare the groups marked a and b , and observe how the principles of unity and variety are both active in these four measures, and how their effect is heightened by the formation of c . (5) The figures of the accompaniment, though reproduced in uniform rhythmic values and melodic direction, undergo constant modifications in pitch and in shape, similar, to those shown in Ex. 2. See, again, No. 37 of the Songs Without Words and note the changes in the formation of the otherwise uniform six-tone g

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CHAPTER II. FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.

CHAPTER II. FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.

TIME.—Time is the same thing in music that it is everywhere else in nature. It is what passes while a piece of music is being played, sung, or read. It is like the area of the surface upon which the musical structure is to be erected, and which is measured or divided into so many units for this, so many for that, so many for the other portion of the musical Form. Time is that quantity which admits of the necessary reduction to units (like the feet and inches of a yardstick), whereby a System of

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[Illustration: Beat accentuation]

[Illustration: Beat accentuation]

RHYTHM.—This word signifies arrangement,—a principle applied, in music, to the distribution or arrangement of the tones according to their various time-values . The system of measurement (or metric system) furnishes tone material with all the details of division, proportion and comparison; but this, alone, is not rhythm. The metric system affords the basis for rational and definable rhythm, but "rhythm" itself does not enter into the proposition until differentiated factors are associated and op

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[Illustration: Example 3. Rhythm.]

[Illustration: Example 3. Rhythm.]

The first measure of this hymn is, by itself, merely an exponent of the metric principle, for it consists of three uniform quarter-notes. The second measure, however, is a rhythmic one, because, by dotting the first of the three beats, three different time-values are obtained (dotted quarter, eighth, and quarter). Further, by association and comparison with each other, both measures assume a collective rhythmic significance. The rhythmic disposition of the tones is to a certain extent optional w

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[Illustration: Example 4. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 4. Fragment of Beethoven.]

The longer (heavier) tones are placed in the middle of the measure, between the beats; the tie at the end of measure 3 places the heavy note at the end, instead of the beginning, of the measure, and cancels the accent of the fourth measure. These irregular forms of rhythm are called syncopation. See also Ex. 6, second Phrase. MELODY.—Any succession of single tones is a melody. If we strike the keys of the piano with two or more fingers of each hand simultaneously, we produce a body of tones, whi

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[Illustration: Example 5. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 5. Fragment of Beethoven.]

The tones bracketed a , if struck all together, unite and blend in one harmonious body, so complete is the harmonic agreement of each succeeding tone with its fellows; the same is true of the group marked c . The tones bracketed b and d do not admit of being struck simultaneously, it is true, but they are all parts of the same key (F minor), and are closely and smoothly connected; hence their concurrence, though not one of harmony (chord), is one of intimate tone relation and proximity. Further,

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CHAPTER III. FIGURE AND MOTIVE.

CHAPTER III. FIGURE AND MOTIVE.

THE MELODIC FIGURE.—The smallest unit in musical composition is the single tone. The smallest cluster of successive tones (from two to four or five in number) that will convey a definite musical impression, as miniature musical idea, is called a Figure. Assuming the single tone to represent the same unit of expression as a letter of the alphabet, the melodic figure would be defined as the equivalent of a complete (small) word;—pursuing the comparison further, a series of figures constitutes the

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[Illustration: Example 6 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 6 continued.]

The tones bracketed a are the Figures; two (in the last measures, three) of these are seen to form Motives; two of these motives make the Phrase; and the whole sentence, of two phrases, is a Period. See also Ex. 1 and Ex. 2, in which the formation of figures is very distinct. The pregnancy and significance of each of these tiny musical "words" (or figures, as we are to call them),—small and apparently imperfect as they are,—can best be tested by concentrating the attention upon each as if it sto

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[Illustration: Example 7. Fragments of Czerny, Mendelssohn, and Schumann.]

[Illustration: Example 7. Fragments of Czerny, Mendelssohn, and Schumann.]

See also Ex. 1. The operation of this exceedingly important rule of "corresponding formation" (about which more will be said later on) is seen—on a larger scale—in Ex. 2, Ex. 5, and Ex. 6, where it defines the whole motive . (3) In default of more definite signs, the figures may be found to correspond to the metric groups (that is, in lengths of whole or half measures). Thus:—...

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[Illustration: Example 8. Fragments of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 8. Fragments of Beethoven.]

This example illustrates the interlinking of the figures, and suggests the difficulty that may be encountered in the effort to define melodic figures. The difficulty is probably greatest in melodies of a lyric character, where it is necessary to sustain the coherency of the sentence; for instance, in many of the Songs Without Words,—see No. 40, No. 22, and others, in which an entirely definite separation of the figures is well-nigh a hopeless task. For this reason,—that is, because the melodic d

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[Illustration: Example 9. Fragments of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 9. Fragments of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Mozart.]

In the first of these examples the extent of the motives is proven by each of the three given guides: the rest, which marks the end of the first member; the similarity of melodic and rhythmic formation, which proclaims the beginning of the second member, parallel with that of the first; and the regular (two-measure) dimension. In Nos. 2 and 3 there are no rests between the motives, and the melodic formation differs; here it is the standard of two measures that defines the members. Ex. 3 is a two

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[Illustration: Example 10. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 10. Fragment of Beethoven.]

one is tempted to call each single measure a motive, because of the number of tones it contains, and the weight (length) of the final tone, which makes a much more emphatic interruption than commonly occurs between figures. And in the following, on the other hand:—...

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[Illustration: Example 11. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 11. Fragment of Beethoven.]

the entire four-measure sentence is evidently one motive, for there is no recognizable indication of an interruption at any point. The same is true of the two melodies given in Ex. 8. The following illustrates an irregular (uneven) association of members:—...

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[Illustration: Example 12. Fragment of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 12. Fragment of Mozart.]

Here again, there may be a disposition to adopt the upper line of brackets, assigning a single measure to each motive. But both here, and in Ex. 10 , the student is advised to adhere to the two-measure standard; he will avoid much needless confusion by so doing,—at least until he shall have so developed and sharpened his sense of melodic syntax that he can apprehend the finer shades of distinction in the "motion and repose" of a melody. Adopting the lower line of brackets, we discover successive

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[Illustration: Example 13 continued. Fragments of Mendelssohn and Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 13 continued. Fragments of Mendelssohn and Mozart.]

In No. 1, the motive begins squarely with the measure, upon the accented beat. In No. 2, the same motive is enlarged by two tones at the outset, which locates its beginning upon the fourth 8th—the second half of the second beat. In No. 3 the motive begins upon an accented beat, but it is the lighter (secondary) accent of the 3d beat. The various conditions of unaccented beginnings in Nos. 4, 5 and 6 are easily recognizable. In No. 7 quite a large fraction of a measure precedes the first accent (

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[Illustration: Example 14. Fragments of Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 14. Fragments of Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn.]

In No. 1, the first motive evidently ends with the longer tone, g -sharp. In No. 2, each one of the four motives differs from the others in length; the sum of them is, however, exactly 24 beats, or 8 measures; hence, each one is actually a two-measure motive, counting from accent to accent. The upper numbers indicate the actual, vital beginning of each motive. This very natural, and fairly common, inequality increases the difficulty of analysis somewhat. A knowledge of the principal chords, and

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CHAPTER IV. THE PHRASE.

CHAPTER IV. THE PHRASE.

THE PHRASE.—It is not altogether easy to give a precise definition of the phrase. Like so many of the factors which enter into the composition of this most abstract, ideal, and intangible of the arts, the phrase demands considerable latitude of treatment, and will not readily submit to strict limitations or absolute technical conditions. Perhaps the most correct definition is, that the term phrase is equivalent to "sentence," and represents the smallest musical section that expresses a complete

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[Illustration: Example 15. Fragment of Schubert.]

[Illustration: Example 15. Fragment of Schubert.]

Its division into two melodic motives, and the subdivision of these into figures, is plainly marked. When the phrase assumes such a conspicuous position, and is so complete and definite in its effect as the ones just seen, there is naturally no difficulty in recognizing and defining its extremities. But the task of phrase analysis is by no means always thus easy. LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE.—Fortunately for the work of analysis, there are certain established landmarks of forms, so conscientious

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[Illustration: Example 16. Fragment of Schumann, Op. 68, No. 11.]

[Illustration: Example 16. Fragment of Schumann, Op. 68, No. 11.]

It will be observed that the first (and also the third) of these phrases consists of two exactly similar two-measure motives. This seems to lend some confirmation to the idea of a two-measure phrase; but the student is warned against deviating from his four-measure standard, upon such evidence as this. Many instances will be found, like these, in which the impression of a complete phrase is not gained until the motive of two measures has been thus repeated; the repetition is necessary , in order

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[Illustration: Example 17. Fragments of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 17. Fragments of Beethoven.]

No. 1 is from the pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 3, second movement; see the original. This phrase exhibits an ending, unmistakably, in the fifth measure, and not in the fourth. Its form is therefore irregular. In No. 2 (from the first pianoforte sonata), the first phrase ends with the fourth measure, obviously, for the evidence of a new "beginning" in the following measure is perfectly clear; the phrase is therefore regular. But the next phrase runs on to the sixth measure from this point (the

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CHAPTER V. CADENCES.

CHAPTER V. CADENCES.

CADENCES IN GENERAL.—A cadence is the ending of a phrase. Strictly speaking, every interruption or "break" between figures, and between all melodic members, is a cadence; but the term "cadence" is applied to nothing smaller than entire phrases. The cadence is the point of Repose which creates the necessary contrast with the condition of Action that prevails more or less constantly during the phrase; and the effect of this point of repose is, therefore, to separate one phrase from the next. The c

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[Illustration: Example 18. Fragment of Schumann.]

[Illustration: Example 18. Fragment of Schumann.]

The first chord in the fourth measure, on the accented beat, is the "cadence-chord"; but the preceding chord (and possibly the one before that, also) is naturally inseparable from the final one, and therefore the entire cadence would be defined technically as embracing both (or all three) of these chords. The effect of repose is obtained by the length of the final chord , which exceeds that of any other melody tone in the phrase; its time-value is a dotted quarter, because of the preliminary ton

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[Illustration: Example 19. Fragment of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 19. Fragment of Mozart.]

In this case the cadence-chord is not modified or disguised in the least, but takes full advantage of the six beats that make the sum of the fourth measure. This important fact concerning the actual value of the cadence-chord remains unchanged, through all the licenses taken in disguising or (apparently) diminishing its value. Whatever means may be resorted to, in modifying the cadence, they do not alter the fact that the cadence-chord is always entitled to this full sum of beats ; and these bea

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[Illustration: Example 20 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 20 continued.]

The point of repose is marked by the longer melody tone f , on the accent of the fourth measure. The value of the cadence-chord is recorded, however, in the living tones of the accompanying figure, which here (as in almost every similar case in composition) continues its rhythmic movement undisturbed. (2) The cadence-chord, or, more properly, the cadence-tone in the melody, is shifted to some later beat in the cadence measure. Thus:...

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[Illustration: Example 21. Fragment of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 21. Fragment of Mozart.]

In this example there is in reality no irregularity, because the cadence-tone rests upon an accented beat (the fourth, in 6-8 measure), and the conditions of a cadence are fulfilled by any accent, primary or secondary, of the final measure. But it belongs, nevertheless, to this class of disguised cadences; for whatever results, thus, in abbreviating the value of the cadence-chord, lightens the effect of the cadence, and serves the desirable purpose so persistently pursued by all good writers. Fu

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[Illustration: Example 22 continued. Fragments of Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 22 continued. Fragments of Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Mozart.]

Nos. 2 and 3 illustrate the method most commonly adopted in shifting the cadence-tone forward to a later beat; namely, by placing an embellishing tone (usually the upper or lower neighbor) of the cadence-tone upon the accented beat belonging properly to the latter. Nos. 4 and 5 are both extreme cases; the actual cadence-tone is shifted to the very end of the measure, so that the effect of cadential interruption is very vague and transient,—and will be quite lost unless the player is intelligent

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[Illustration: Example 23 continued. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 23 continued. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

No. 1 illustrates, again, the absence of preliminary tones in one phrase, and their presence in the next. In each of these examples (excepting, perhaps, No. 2) the cadence is so thoroughly disguised that there is little, if any, evidence left of the "point of repose." In No. 4, particularly, the cadence-measure is rhythmically the most active one in the phrase. And yet the presence of a genuine cadence at each of these places, marked *, is as certain and indisputable as in Ex. 19. The ear will a

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[Illustration: Example 24 continued. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 24 continued. Fragment of Beethoven.]

It is difficult to believe that in each of these cases the long array of 16th-notes should not constitute the actual beginning of the phrase, but are only preliminary; and yet this is the only correct view to take of it, and it is the view which will simplify all analysis, when thoroughly comprehended. It must be seen that the cluster of 16th-notes in the cadence-measure (of the preceding phrase) is one-sixteenth short of a full measure , and, therefore, it does not represent the first measure o

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[Illustration: Example 25. Fragment of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 25. Fragment of Mozart.]

THE ELISION.—Finally, there are some (very rare) instances where the composer appears to yield to the seductive influence of such extensive preliminary groups as those seen in Example 24, and by setting aside the trifling discrepancy, permits the apparent preliminary tones to represent the actual first measure of the next phrase . This is easily accomplished, when, as in Example 24, No. 2, it is only one 16th-note short of a full measure. And although this 16th, being the cadence-chord, is actua

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[Illustration: Example 26 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 26 continued.]

The proofs of this very singular and apparently untrustworthy analysis are: (1) That there is absolutely no doubt about the first cadence, marked *; (2) that a cadence is consequently due, and expected, four measures later,—this proving the measure in question to be the "cadence-measure of the old phrase," as it is marked and as it appeals to our sense of cadence; (3) that the last four measures unmistakably represent a regular, compact phrase,—this proving that the "cadence-measure of the old p

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[Illustration: Example 27. Fragment of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 27. Fragment of Mozart.]

Here again there is no doubt of the presence of a cadence at the first *; but this "cadence-measure" appears almost as certainly to be at the same time the initial measure of a new phrase. This, however, proves not to be the case, because there are four measures left, without this one . That is, counting backward from the final cadence, we locate the "first measure" after, not with , the cadence-measure. And this is the way the passage was meant to sound by its author, and the way it will and mu

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[Illustration: Example 28. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 28. Fragment of Beethoven.]

This case is extremely misleading; it is hard to believe (and feel) that the characteristic onset of the 16th-triplet figure does not herald the new phrase; but all the indications of strict, unswerving analysis (not to be duped by appearances) point to the fact that this is one of the common cases of disguised cadence, and not an elision of the cadence. The sforzando marks of Beethoven confirm this view, and, as in Example 27, we have our four measures to the next cadence, without this "cadence

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[Illustration: Example 29. Fragment of Schubert.]

[Illustration: Example 29. Fragment of Schubert.]

At the end of this four-measure phrase there is a perfect cadence, exhibited in its strongest, most conclusive form. It is practically undisguised, though the cadence-chord is reduced to three beats (from the four to which it is entitled) to make room for the preliminary beat of the next phrase (calculated to correspond to the one at the beginning of this phrase). The cadence-chord is the tonic harmony of C minor; upon the primary accent of the 4th measure; it is considerably longer than any oth

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[Illustration: Example 30. Fragment of Schumann.]

[Illustration: Example 30. Fragment of Schumann.]

the cadence-chord stands upon the secondary accent (3d beat) of the final measure. This method of shifting the cadence forward is generally adopted in large species of measure (6-8, 9-8, and the like), and has been defined among the devices employed in disguising or lightening the cadence. In Ex. 22, No. 5, the cadence-chord is shifted to the last beat (unaccented) of the final measure; this lightens the cadence very materially, but it does not affect any of its essential properties as perfect c

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[Illustration: Example 31. Fragment of Schumann.]

[Illustration: Example 31. Fragment of Schumann.]

The cadence-chord occupies the unaccented (2d) beat, and is no longer than any other chord in the phrase. Despite its striking brevity, it is nevertheless a perfect cadence, disguised; it is the tonic chord of C major, with the keynote at top and bottom. See also Ex. 23, No. 1. The following illustrations come under the head of the disguised cadences seen in Ex. 24:—...

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[Illustration: Example 32. Fragments of Mendelssohn and Schubert.]

[Illustration: Example 32. Fragments of Mendelssohn and Schubert.]

In No. 1 the cadence is perfect, for it is the tonic chord of G major, keynote g at top and bottom, and on the primary accent of the fourth measure; but the uninterrupted continuation of the movement of 16ths, in the right hand, shortens the uppermost keynote to a single 16th-note, and would entirely conceal the cadence, were it not for the distinct evidence of repose in the lower part. In No. 2 the movement in the upper part appears to shatter the cadence; the keynote does not appear on the acc

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[Illustration: Example 33. Fragment of Schubert.]

[Illustration: Example 33. Fragment of Schubert.]

The last two measures are merely the prolongation of the final cadence-chord. See also, Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 4, last five measures; No. 8, last eight measures; and others. Another peculiarity of the final cadence is, that sometimes the uppermost tone is the 3d or 5th of the tonic chord, instead of the keynote,—a significant device to counteract the dead weight of the cadence-chord, especially when prolonged as just seen. See No. 10 of the Songs Without Words, last six measures;

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[Illustration: Example 34. Fragment of Brahms.]

[Illustration: Example 34. Fragment of Brahms.]

The cadence-chord is the dominant harmony (root e ) in the key of A minor; neither of the two upper tones on the first and second beats is the root of the chord; it is quite sufficient that the root appears as lowermost tone, and even this is not necessary. The "point of repose" is shifted to the second beat, in the manner so amply illustrated in the examples of the disguised cadence; the methods we have seen may be applied to any kind of cadence. See also Ex. 18; the key, and therefore the chor

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[Illustration: Example 35. Fragment of Schumann.]

[Illustration: Example 35. Fragment of Schumann.]

the semicadence in the fourth measure is made with the dominant harmony of C major (the tones g-b-d-f ); it is so disguised as to remove all signs of interruption; but the chord prevails throughout the measure, and (as may be seen by reference to the original, op. 68, No. 3) the next measure—the fifth—exactly corresponds to the first; this indicates another "beginning," and proves our "ending." But though the dominant is thus generally employed at the semicadence, it is by no means the only avai

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[Illustration: Example 36. Fragment of Schubert.]

[Illustration: Example 36. Fragment of Schubert.]

The first, second, and third of these cadences is made upon the tonic harmony, on the accent of each successive fourth measure. But they are only semicadences , as the melody (uppermost part) rests upon the Third of the chord, c , instead of the keynote; this substitution of c for a-flat is sufficient to frustrate the perfect cadence and diminish it to a transient interruption. The final cadence is perfect, however, because there the uppermost tone is the keynote. See also Ex. 21; and Ex. 17, No

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CHAPTER VI. IRREGULAR PHRASES.

CHAPTER VI. IRREGULAR PHRASES.

CAUSES.—The possibility of deviating from the fundamental standard of phrase-dimension (four measures) has been repeatedly intimated, and is treated with some detail in the text preceding Example 17, which should be reviewed. It is now necessary to examine some of the conditions that lead to this result. The causes of irregular phrase-dimension are two-fold; it may result (1) from simply inserting an additional cadence, or from omitting one. Or (2) it may be the consequence of some specific mani

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[Illustration: Example 37. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 37. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

There is no reasonable doubt of the semicadence in the second measure, because enough pulses have been heard, up to that point, to represent the sum of an ordinary phrase. If this were written in 6-8 measure (as it might be), it would contain four measures. See, also, Song No. 22 of Mendelssohn,—9-8 measure, adagio tempo; the phrases are "Small"; note particularly the last two measures. The same is true in No. 17. About Schumann, op. 68, No. 43 ( Sylvesterlied ), there may be some doubt; but the

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[Illustration: Example 38. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 38. Fragment of Beethoven.]

There is not the slightest evidence of repose or interruption in the fourth measure, nor of a new beginning in the fifth, wherefore the cadence is not expected until four more measures have passed by. The inferior points of repose in the upper parts, at the beginning of the 5th, 6th and 7th measures, serve only to establish melodic, or rather rhythmic, variety, and have no cadential force whatever. See Mendelssohn, Song No. 8; the first cadence appears to stand in the eighth measure; the tempo i

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[Illustration: Example 39. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 39. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

These six measures result from a repetition (variated) of the third and fourth measures of the original—regular—four-measure phrase. A cadence is due in the fourth measure, but it is not permitted to assert itself; and if it did, its cadential force would be neutralized by the entirely obvious return to (repetition of) the motive just heard. Further:—...

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[Illustration: Example 40. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 40. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

There is no cadence in the fourth measure,—the current of the melody obliterates it and hurries on, voicing the last measure again and again until it dies away in the tenth measure, where a cadence ends it. That it should be the tenth measure is purely accidental; the number of measures is of little account in the act of extension; here, it was continued until a convenient place was found (with reference to chord and key) for the cadence. Further:—...

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[Illustration: Example 41. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 41. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

Measures 1, 2, 3 and 8 constitute the original regular four-measure phrase. The following regular phrase (to be found in the last movement of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 28):—...

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[Illustration: Example 42. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 42. Fragment of Beethoven.]

is immediately followed by this lengthy and elaborate extension:—...

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[Illustration: Example 43 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 43 continued.]

The portion marked b is a complete repetition, with quaint variation, of the original four-measure phrase, marked a in Ex. 42; c is a repetition of the last figure (just one measure) of the phrase, with the melodic parts inverted, or exchanged; d and e are a literal repetition of the two preceding measures—( c ) and c ; f is another recurrence of ( c ), with still another inversion of the melodies; g repeats e an octave higher; and h is nothing more or less than a curious repetition of g , in lo

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CHAPTER VII. THE PERIOD-FORM.

CHAPTER VII. THE PERIOD-FORM.

PHRASE-ADDITION.—The phrase is the structural basis of all musical composition. By this is meant, not necessarily the single phrase, but the phrase in its collective sense. The phrase is, after all, only a unit; and the requirements of Variety cannot be wholly satisfied by the mere development and extension of a single phrase, except it be for a certain limited section of the piece, or for a brief composition in small form (like Schumann, op. 68, No. 8). The act of addition does therefore enter

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[Illustration: Example 44. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 44. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

The co-operation, or interaction, of the principles of Unity and Variety, is nowhere more strikingly shown than in the formulation of the musical period. Either element has the right to predominate, to a reasonable degree, though never to the exclusion or injury of the other. In the above example, the principle of Unity predominates to a somewhat unusual extent:—not only the figures (marked 1-2-3-4), and the motives ( a-b ), are uniform, in the Antecedent phrase itself, but the melody of the Con

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[Illustration: Example 45. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

[Illustration: Example 45. Fragment of Mendelssohn.]

In this example also, the Consequent phrase is a complete affirmation of its Antecedent, agreeing in its melodic form with the latter until the cadence is nearly due, when an extra measure is inserted (as extension), and the usual digression into the necessary perfect cadence is made. The condition of Unity predominates, but a noticeable infusion of Variety takes place. Further (Mozart, pianoforte sonata):—...

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[Illustration: Example 46. Fragment of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 46. Fragment of Mozart.]

Here, again, the condition of Unity prevails, but with a still greater infusion of Variety; the melody of the Consequent phrase resembles that of the Antecedent in every detail; the rhythm is identical, and it is evident that the second phrase is designed to balance the first, figure for figure, the principal change being that some of the figures are simply turned upside down (compare the places marked N. B. ). The semicadence rests upon a dominant chord (fifth-step) of D major; the perfect cade

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[Illustration: Example 47 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 47 continued.]

In this example, the condition of Variety predominates decidedly. The Consequent melody differs totally from the Antecedent, even in rhythm, and the necessary portion of Unity is exhibited only in equality of length, uniformity of accompaniment , and similarity of character (tonality, and general harmonic and rhythmic effect). Observe the diversity of melodic extent, in the two phrases, in consequence of the preliminary tone borrowed from the semicadence for the Consequent phrase. Greater variet

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CHAPTER VIII.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.

CHAPTER VIII.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.

The processes of extension and development are applied to the period in the same general manner as to the phrase. The results, however, are broader; partly because every operation is performed on a correspondingly larger scale, and partly because the resources of technical manipulation increase, naturally, with the growth of the thematic material. Among the various methods adopted, there are three, each significant in its own peculiar way, that provide sufficiently exhaustive directions for the

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[Illustration: Example 48. Fragment of Mozart.]

[Illustration: Example 48. Fragment of Mozart.]

The Antecedent is a regular four-measure phrase, with semicadence (made on the tonic chord, but with 3d as uppermost tone); the Consequent is a six-measure phrase, with perfect cadence, and is repeated, with partial change of register. The whole is a "period with repeated Consequent." A somewhat elaborate example of extension by detail-repetition is seen in the following (Chopin, Mazurka No. 20, op. 30, No. 3—see the original):...

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[Illustration: Example 49 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 49 continued.]

These sixteen measures are the product out of eight measures, by extension; that is, they are reducible to a simple period-form (as may be verified by omitting the passages indicated under dotted lines), and they represent in reality nothing more than its manipulation and development. The original 8-measure period makes a complete musical sentence, and was so devised in the mind of the composer, without the extensions . The method of manipulation is ingenious; observe the variety obtained by the

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[Illustration: Phrase group diagram.]

[Illustration: Phrase group diagram.]

Observe that the classification depends upon the number of phrases,—upon the melodic identity of the phrases,—and upon the quality of the cadences . No. 1 is illustrated in Ex. 15; No. 2, in Ex. 42 and the first four measures of Ex. 43 (cadence not perfect, it is true, but same phrase-melody and same cadence ); No. 3 is seen in Ex. 44 (phrase-melody similar, but cadences different)—also in Ex. 47; No. 4 is seen in Ex. 48; No. 5 is rare, but an example will be discovered in Lesson 8; No. 6 is ill

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[Illustration: Example 50. Fragment of Grieg.]

[Illustration: Example 50. Fragment of Grieg.]

Comparing this sentence with Ex. 48, we discover the following significant difference: There, no more than two phrases were present; the whole sentence was reducible to two phrases. Here (Ex. 50), however, no such reduction is possible; three sufficiently similar—and sufficiently different—phrases are coherently connected, without evidence of mere repetition; it is the result of Addition, and the form is a phrase-group . The first cadence is, strictly speaking, a perfect one; but of that somewha

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[Illustration: Example 51. Fragment of Beethoven.]

[Illustration: Example 51. Fragment of Beethoven.]

Each phrase is four measures long, as usual; the first one ends (as in Ex. 50) with one of those early, transient perfect cadences that do not break the continuity of the sentence; the second phrase ends with a semicadence,—therefore the sentence remains unbroken; phrase three is exactly like the first, and is therefore an Antecedent, as before; phrase four bears close resemblance to the second one, but differs at the end, on account of the perfect cadence. The evidences of Unity and Variety are

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CHAPTER IX. THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM.

CHAPTER IX. THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM.

THE SONG-FORM OR THE PART-FORM.—Almost every musical composition of average (brief) dimensions, if designed with the serious purpose of imparting a clear formal impression, will admit of division into either two or three fairly distinct sections, or Parts, of approximately equal length. The distinctness with which the points of separation are marked, and the degree of independence of each of these two or three larger sections, are determined almost entirely by the length of the whole. And whethe

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[Illustration: Example 52. Fragment of German _lied_.]

[Illustration: Example 52. Fragment of German _lied_.]

The whole embraces four phrases, and might, for that reason, be mistaken for a double-period. But the strong perfect cadence at the end of the first period (reinforced by the repetition), and the contrasting melodic formation of the second period, so separate and distinguish the two periods as to make them independent "Parts" of the whole. It is not one "double-period," but two fairly distinct periods . The first cadence (in measure 4) has again, strictly speaking, the elements of a perfect cade

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CHAPTER X.--THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.

CHAPTER X.--THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS.—We learned, in the preceding chapter, that the Two-Part Song-form is a composition of rather brief extent, with so decisive a perfect cadence in its course as to divide it, in a marked manner, into two separate and fairly individual sections or "Parts." Between this and the next higher form,—that with three such Parts,—there is a distinction far more essential and characteristic than that of mere extent; a distinction that does not rest simply

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[Illustration: Example 53 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 53 continued.]

This version is as complete as it can conveniently be made upon one single staff (chosen in order to economize space); but the student will find the formal design somewhat more plastically defined in the original, complete form, and he is therefore expected to refer to the latter. Part I is an unusually regular double-period, with three semicadences and a strong perfect cadence, on the original tonic, to mark its conclusion; the double-bar is an additional confirmation of the end of the Part. Th

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CHAPTER XI. ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.

CHAPTER XI. ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.

REPETITION OF THE PARTS.—The enlargement of the Three-Part Song-form is effected, in the majority of cases, by simply repeating the Parts. The composer, in extending the dimensions of his original design, resorts as usual to the most legitimate and natural means at his disposal—that of repetition . By so doing, he reinforces the principle of Unity, and, instead of obscuring, places the contents of his design in a stronger and more convincing light. It is true that the act of mere repetition invo

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[Illustration: Diagram of Parts.]

[Illustration: Diagram of Parts.]

The Five-Part form is illustrated in the 14th Song Without Words;—(first, number the measures; observe that the two endings of Part I are to be counted as the same measure , and not separately; they are both measure 8):—Part I extends to the double-bar, and is repeated literally, only excepting the rhythmic modification of the final measure; Part II extends from measure 9 to 23; Part III, measures 24-35; Part IV, measures 36-47; Part V, measures 48-60; coda to the end. The comparison of Part IV

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CHAPTER XII. THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO.

CHAPTER XII. THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO.

Another method of enlargement consists in associating two different—though somewhat related—Song-Forms. The practice was so common in certain of the older dances, particularly in the minuet, that this design is also known as the Minuet Form . THE PRINCIPAL SONG.—The first division, called the principal song, is either a Two-Part or a Three-Part Song-form,—most commonly the latter. It is generally entirely complete in itself; the fact that another division is to be added, does not affect its char

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CHAPTER XIII. THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.

CHAPTER XIII. THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.

EVOLUTION.—It cannot have escaped the observant student of the foregoing pages, that the successive enlargement of the structural designs of musical composition is achieved by a process of natural growth and progressive evolution. No single form intrudes itself in an arbitrary or haphazard manner; each design emerges naturally and inevitably out of the preceding, in response to the necessity of expansion, and conformably with the same constant laws of unity and variety,—the active agents, along

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[Illustration: Example 54 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 54 continued.]

This is a genuine First Rondo-form. All the factors of which it is composed, Phrases, Parts and Themes, are so closely interlinked that the continuity, cohesion and unity of the whole is complete. The variety of contents which these factors exhibit (greatest, naturally, between the two themes), does not disturb the impression that the whole movement is a unit. This is due, at least partly, to the manner in which the perfect cadences are disguised; each one is passed over with the least possible

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CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND RONDO-FORM.

CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND RONDO-FORM.

As described in the preceding chapter, the Second Rondo-form contains two digressions from the Principal theme, called respectively the first and second Subordinate themes. It bears the same relation to the Five-Part Song-form, that the First Rondo-form bears to the Three-Part Song-form. For the sake of effective contrast, the two Subordinate themes are generally differentiated to a marked degree; more precisely stated, the second Subordinate theme is likely to differ strikingly both from the Pr

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CHAPTER XV. THE THIRD RONDO-FORM.

CHAPTER XV. THE THIRD RONDO-FORM.

In this form of composition there are three digressions from the Principal theme. But, in order to avert the excess of variety, so imminent in a design of such length, the digressions are so planned that the third one corresponds to the first . That is, there are here again only two Subordinate themes (as in the Second Rondo-form), which alternate with each other, so that the succession of thematic factors is as follows: Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme; 2d Subordinate The

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CHAPTER XVI. THE SONATINE FORM.

CHAPTER XVI. THE SONATINE FORM.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS.—The Sonatine form is the smaller variety of two practically kindred designs, known collectively as the Sonata-allegro forms. In order to obtain a clear conception of its relation to the latter, and also to the Rondo-forms, it is necessary to subject the entire group of so-called "higher" forms to a brief comparison. The larger, broader, or "higher" designs of musical composition are divided into two classes: the three Rondo-forms , and the two Sonata-allegro f

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CHAPTER XVII. THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.

CHAPTER XVII. THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.

ORIGIN OF THE NAME.—The fully developed Sonata-allegro form is the design in which the classic overture and the first movement of the symphony, sonata and concerto are usually framed. The student must be careful not to confound this musical form with the complete sonata of three or four movements. It is not to be called the "sonata form," but the "sonata-allegro form." It is to one movement only, generally the first one, which is (or was) very commonly an allegro tempo in the sonata and symphony

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[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]

[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]

The thematic factors are small, but none is omitted; every essential component is represented. For a more extended and fully developed example of the sonata-allegro form, see Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement; number the 200 measures, and verify all the details according to the following analysis (figures in parenthesis refer as usual to the measures):— Principal Theme , Part I, period-form (1-8). Part II (9- ), dissolved (about 14) into Transition ( -25). Subordinate T

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CHAPTER XVIII. IRREGULAR FORMS.

CHAPTER XVIII. IRREGULAR FORMS.

CAUSES.—Despite the many points of resemblance between the various forms to which our successive chapters have been devoted,—the natural consequence of a continuous line of structural evolution to which each plan owes its origin,—they are separate and independent designs, with individual character and purpose; so much so, that the composer may, and usually does, select and apply his form according to the purpose which he has in view. But the form is made for the music, not the music for the form

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CHAPTER XIX. APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.

CHAPTER XIX. APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.

The use of the various forms of composition, that is, their selection with a view to general fitness for the composer's object, is, primarily, simply a question of length. The higher aesthetic law of adjusting the design to the contents, of which we spoke in the preceding chapter, comes into action after the main choice has been determined. The smallest complete form, that of the PHRASE, can scarcely be expected to suffice for an independent piece of music, though its occurrence as independent s

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AFTERWORD.

AFTERWORD.

The expression "Musical Forms" is often used, somewhat carelessly and erroneously, with reference to Styles or Species of composition, instead of to the structural design upon which the music is based. The "Barcarolle," "Mazurka," "Étude," "Anthem," and so forth, are styles of composition, and not necessarily identified with any of the structural designs we have been examining. Read, again, our FOREWORD. The general conditions which enter into the distinctions of style are enumerated in my "Homo

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