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PREFACE
PREFACE
The Author’s thanks are due to His Excellency Baron G. Hayashi, H.I.J.M.’s Ambassador in London, for most kindly referring to a competent authority in Japan, for confirmation, a doubtful point in feudal land tenure; to Prince Iwakura, Marquis Ōkubo, and Marquis Kido for photographs of three of the eminent statesmen whose portraits appear; to the Right Honorable Sir Ernest Satow for the trouble he took in reading the MS. of the book; to Sir E. F. Crowe, C.M.G. , Commercial Counsellor of the Briti
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CHAPTER I Early History—The Great Reform—Adoption of Chinese Culture.
CHAPTER I Early History—The Great Reform—Adoption of Chinese Culture.
There is much speculation, but no certainty, regarding the origin of the Japanese people. It is, however, generally held that the Japanese race is made up of two main elements—one Mongolian, which came to Japan from Northern Asia by way of Korea, and the other Malayan; a third strain being possibly supplied to some small extent by the Ainu aborigines, whom the invaders found in occupation of the country. The prevailing type of feature is Mongolian, though scientific research claims to have disco
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CHAPTER II Establishment of Feudalism and Duarchy—The Shōgunate and the Throne—Early Foreign Relations—Christian Persecution and Closure of Country.
CHAPTER II Establishment of Feudalism and Duarchy—The Shōgunate and the Throne—Early Foreign Relations—Christian Persecution and Closure of Country.
The fortunes of the first line of Kamakura Shōguns, so called from the seat of government being at that place, gave no indication of the permanence of duarchy, though it may have encouraged belief in the truth of the Japanese proverb that great men have no heirs. Neither of Yoritomo’s sons who succeeded him as Shōgun showing any capacity for government, the direction of affairs fell into the hands of members of the Hōjō family, who, by a further extension of the principle of ruling by proxy, wer
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CHAPTER III The Tokugawa Shōguns—Consolidation of Duarchy.
CHAPTER III The Tokugawa Shōguns—Consolidation of Duarchy.
The rule of Hidéyoshi was followed by that of a new line of Shōguns. The circumstances under which it was established are well known. At the death of Hidéyoshi in 1598 the government of the country was, during the minority of his son Hidéyori, entrusted to five feudal nobles who acted as regents. Of these, the most prominent was Tokugawa Iyéyasu, who had married Hidéyoshi’s daughter, and whose feudal territories consisted of the eight provinces in the east of the main island known as the Kwantō.
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CHAPTER IV Political Conditions—Reopening of Japan to Foreign Intercourse—Conclusion of Treaties—Decay of Shōgunate.
CHAPTER IV Political Conditions—Reopening of Japan to Foreign Intercourse—Conclusion of Treaties—Decay of Shōgunate.
Much space has been given in the preceding chapter to the Tokugawa period of administration. For this no apology is due to the reader. The period in question, held in grateful remembrance by the nation as the Era of Great Peace, is the most important in Japanese history. This importance it owes to its long duration; to the singular character of its government—a centralized and autocratic bureaucracy flavoured with feudalism; to the progress which took place in literature, art and industry; to it
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CHAPTER V Anti-Foreign Feeling—Chōshiū Rebellion—Mikado’s Ratification of Treaties—Prince Kéiki—Restoration Movement—Civil War—Fall of Shōgunate.
CHAPTER V Anti-Foreign Feeling—Chōshiū Rebellion—Mikado’s Ratification of Treaties—Prince Kéiki—Restoration Movement—Civil War—Fall of Shōgunate.
The signature of the Treaty was loudly condemned by the Court party, the ex-Prince of Mito being conspicuous amongst those who protested. He addressed a violently worded remonstrance to the Council of State, impugning the action of the Government, which was accused of disrespect to the Throne, and disobedience to the Imperial commands. The Regent retorted by striking at once at his enemies with all the force of his newly acquired position, and the prestige of his success in the matter of the suc
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CHAPTER VI Japanese Chronology—Satsuma and Chōshiū Clans—The “Charter Oath.”
CHAPTER VI Japanese Chronology—Satsuma and Chōshiū Clans—The “Charter Oath.”
In the movement which swept away the Tokugawa Shōguns two cries were raised by the Imperialists: “Honour the Sovereign” and “Expel the foreigner.” They constituted the programme of the party. No sooner had the revolution been crowned with success than the second part of the programme was abandoned. The bulk of the military class had been led to believe that the downfall of the Shōgunate would carry with it the withdrawal of foreigners and the closure of the country. But the wiser heads among the
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CHAPTER VII New Government—Clan Feeling in Satsuma—Administrative Changes—Reformers and Reactionaries.
CHAPTER VII New Government—Clan Feeling in Satsuma—Administrative Changes—Reformers and Reactionaries.
In the spring of the following year (1869), when order was finally restored and the young Mikado had held his first audience of foreign representatives, an attempt was made to give practical effect to the Imperial intentions by establishing a deliberative assembly, to which the name of Kōgisho , or parliament, was given. It consisted of 276 members, one for each clan. Here, again, we are struck by the wide range of progressive opinion in the country, irrespective of party feeling and anti-foreig
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CHAPTER VIII Abolition of Feudal System—Reconstitution of Classes—Effects of Abolition of Feudalism.
CHAPTER VIII Abolition of Feudal System—Reconstitution of Classes—Effects of Abolition of Feudalism.
The abolition of the feudal system formed one of the subjects of discussion in the embryo parliament, the Kōgisho , soon after its creation in 1869. The way had been prepared for this discussion by the presentation of memorials on the subject at the time of the Shōgun’s resignation eighteen months before from several clans representing both of the parties which were so soon to be engaged in active hostilities. Memorials of this kind to the Throne and Shōgunate, and Edicts and Notifications issue
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CHAPTER IX Effects of Abolition of Feudalism on Agricultural Class—Changes in Land Tenure—Land-Tax Revision.
CHAPTER IX Effects of Abolition of Feudalism on Agricultural Class—Changes in Land Tenure—Land-Tax Revision.
The abolition of feudalism came as a boon to the peasantry. If it inflicted much hardship on the samurai , who formed the bulk of the military class, while the verdict as to its results in other cases depended on the conclusion to be reached after balancing the gain and loss attending its operation, to the farmers it was a veritable blessing. Its full significance was, however, not felt until after the lapse of several years. Under the feudal system the position of the farmer varied to some exte
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CHAPTER X Missions to Foreign Governments—Hindrances to Reform—Language Difficulties—Attitude of Foreign Powers.
CHAPTER X Missions to Foreign Governments—Hindrances to Reform—Language Difficulties—Attitude of Foreign Powers.
The numerous measures called for by the abolition of feudalism did not prevent the new Government from turning their attention to foreign affairs. In the same year (1871) which saw the issue of the Decree giving practical effect to the surrender of feudal fiefs a mission composed of Iwakura, Minister for Foreign Affairs, and two Councillors of State, Kido and Ōkubo, was despatched to Europe and the United States. The suite of the mission, which numbered more than fifty persons, included Mr. (aft
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CHAPTER XI Changes and Reforms—Relations with China and Korea—Rupture in Ministry—Secession of Tosa and Hizen Leaders—Progress of Reforms—Annexation of Loochoo—Discontent of Former Military Class.
CHAPTER XI Changes and Reforms—Relations with China and Korea—Rupture in Ministry—Secession of Tosa and Hizen Leaders—Progress of Reforms—Annexation of Loochoo—Discontent of Former Military Class.
The changes introduced after the Restoration group themselves broadly into two kinds—those borrowed from abroad, and those due to the inspiration of the reformers themselves. The reforms affecting the land, which we have already considered, fall essentially into the latter category. Though some colouring of Western ideas may be apparent in the stress laid on uniformity of tenure and taxation, and in some other respects, the land reform, viewed as a whole, was the logical outcome of the abolition
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CHAPTER XII Local Risings—Satsuma Rebellion—Two-Clan Government.
CHAPTER XII Local Risings—Satsuma Rebellion—Two-Clan Government.
When mentioning in a previous chapter the occurrence of dissensions in the Ministry soon after the Restoration, attention was drawn to a point of some importance—the division of feeling which existed in several of the clans. This was most conspicuous in Satsuma, Chōshiū and Mito. Even before the Restoration the contentions of rival parties had led in Chōshiū to grave disorders, which had weakened that clan in its conflict with the Tokugawa Government; while in Mito the struggle of opposing facti
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CHAPTER XIII Japanese Religions before Restoration: Shintō and Buddhism.
CHAPTER XIII Japanese Religions before Restoration: Shintō and Buddhism.
In the previous chapter the outbreak and suppression of the Satsuma rebellion were recorded. An outline was also given of the course of events by which the administration assumed a new character, the direction of affairs passing into the hands of the Satsuma and Chōshiū clans. The point now reached, when the new Government is seen at length firmly seated in the saddle, seems to furnish a suitable opportunity for dealing with the subject of religion. Though not in all respects very closely connec
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CHAPTER XIV Japanese Religions after Restoration: Christianity—Bushidō—Religious Observances.
CHAPTER XIV Japanese Religions after Restoration: Christianity—Bushidō—Religious Observances.
The political considerations which have affected religious development in Japan are chiefly, though by no means entirely, connected with her modern progress. Under the Tokugawa administration matters concerning religion were entrusted to official dignitaries called Jisha-bugiō who, as their name, “Controllers of Buddhist and Shintō temples,” implies, took charge, in addition to other and more important administrative duties, of all business connected with these two religions. Both religions were
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CHAPTER XV Political Unrest—The Press—Press Laws—Conciliation and Repression—Legal Reforms—Failure of Yezo Colonization Scheme—Ōkuma’s Withdrawal—Increased Political Agitation.
CHAPTER XV Political Unrest—The Press—Press Laws—Conciliation and Repression—Legal Reforms—Failure of Yezo Colonization Scheme—Ōkuma’s Withdrawal—Increased Political Agitation.
When the main thread of our narrative was interrupted in order to enable the reader to form some idea of Japanese religions, and their relation to the modern progress of the country, the train of events which resulted in the concentration of authority in the hands of the Satsuma and Chōshiū clans, and the formation of a regular opposition party of advanced reformers, had been briefly described. At this time, as was pointed out, there was no great difference of principle, so far as domestic refor
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CHAPTER XVI Promise of Representative Government—Political Parties—Renewed Unrest—Local Outbreaks.
CHAPTER XVI Promise of Representative Government—Political Parties—Renewed Unrest—Local Outbreaks.
The decree announcing the Imperial decision to establish a Parliament in 1890 was issued on the 12th October, 1881. In this decree the Emperor refers to his intention from the first to establish gradually a constitutional form of government, evidence of which had already been furnished by the creation of a Senate ( Genrō-in ) in 1875, and the drafting, three years later, of the laws concerning local government-measures designed, it is explained, to serve as a foundation for the further reforms c
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CHAPTER XVII Framing of Constitution—New Peerage—Reorganization of Ministry—English Influence—Financial Reform—Failure of Conferences for Treaty Revision.
CHAPTER XVII Framing of Constitution—New Peerage—Reorganization of Ministry—English Influence—Financial Reform—Failure of Conferences for Treaty Revision.
With the return of the Itō mission in September, 1883, the task of framing a Constitution was commenced. By that time the conservative tendencies in the Ministry had become more marked. They were to increase still further as a result of the study of Western political systems in which the mission had been engaged. Most of its time had been spent in Germany. The rapid progress of that country since its expansion into an Empire, the bureaucratic basis of its administration, the conservative bias of
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CHAPTER XVIII Imperial Authority—Privy Council—Local Self-Government—Promulgation of Constitution—Imperial Prerogatives—The Two Houses of Parliament—Features of Constitution and First Parliamentary Elections.
CHAPTER XVIII Imperial Authority—Privy Council—Local Self-Government—Promulgation of Constitution—Imperial Prerogatives—The Two Houses of Parliament—Features of Constitution and First Parliamentary Elections.
The Peace Preservation Regulations provided, as we have seen, amongst other things, for the removal of persons suspected of designs to disturb the public peace from areas in the Capital, and its suburbs, within a radius of seven miles from the Imperial Palace. This mention of the Imperial Palace shows how strong the force of habit was, and still is, in Japan. The maintenance of “the security of the Throne,” a phrase borrowed from the Chinese classics, was for centuries a leading idea in Japanese
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CHAPTER XIX Working of Representative Government—Stormy Proceedings in Diet—Legal and Judicial Reform—Political Rowdyism—Fusion of Classes.
CHAPTER XIX Working of Representative Government—Stormy Proceedings in Diet—Legal and Judicial Reform—Political Rowdyism—Fusion of Classes.
The simultaneous creation in Japan of a Parliament and a Constitution offers a contrast to the sequence of political history elsewhere. There is no essential connection between the two. Some countries have enjoyed parliamentary rights of various kinds before being endowed with Constitutions. In others, again, the order of precedence has been reversed. The fact that in Japan the two came together may be regarded as the natural outcome of the decision of the new Government formed at the Restoratio
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CHAPTER XX Working of Parliamentary Government—Grouping of Parties—Government and Opposition—Formation of Seiyūkai—Increasing Intervention of Throne—Decrease of Party Rancour—Attitude of Upper House.
CHAPTER XX Working of Parliamentary Government—Grouping of Parties—Government and Opposition—Formation of Seiyūkai—Increasing Intervention of Throne—Decrease of Party Rancour—Attitude of Upper House.
The stage now reached in our narrative seems to be a suitable moment for giving a sketch of the main features which marked the proceedings of the Diet from the date of its first session up to the present time. By the adoption of this course, instead of adhering strictly to chronological sequence, it may be possible to convey a clearer idea of the character and working of parliamentary government in Japan. We have seen that the results of the first elections were unfavourable to the Government, t
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CHAPTER XXI Treaty Revision—Great Britain Takes Initiative—Difficulties with China.
CHAPTER XXI Treaty Revision—Great Britain Takes Initiative—Difficulties with China.
The year 1894 marks a memorable stage in the rise of Japan to the position in the world she has since attained. It witnessed two events of far-reaching importance: the revision of the Treaty between Great Britain and Japan, which, though only the first of a series, practically solved the long-pending question of Treaty revision; and the outbreak of war with China. The new Treaty with Great Britain was signed on the 16th July, and within a fortnight of its signature Japan was at war with her cont
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CHAPTER XXII China and Korea—War with China—Naval Reform—Defeat of China—Treaty of Shimonoséki—Peace Terms.
CHAPTER XXII China and Korea—War with China—Naval Reform—Defeat of China—Treaty of Shimonoséki—Peace Terms.
Those who are at all familiar with Chinese history will scarcely have failed to notice one persistent feature of it—the suzerainty that China has either exercised, or claimed to exercise, over neighbouring States which at one time or another have fallen under her domination. This has been the common experience of nearly all countries whose situation on the frontiers of the Chinese Empire has exposed them to invasion by their restless and powerful neighbour. At the time of which we are speaking s
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CHAPTER XXIII Militarist Policy—Liaotung Peninsula—Intervention of Three Powers—Leases of Chinese Territory by Germany, Russia, Great Britain and France—Spheres of Interest.
CHAPTER XXIII Militarist Policy—Liaotung Peninsula—Intervention of Three Powers—Leases of Chinese Territory by Germany, Russia, Great Britain and France—Spheres of Interest.
The origin of the activity displayed by Japan in the reorganization of her army and navy, the efficiency of which was so strikingly demonstrated in the war with China, may be traced to the military tendencies of the two clans which had practically governed the country since the Restoration. It was the military strength of these clans which was, as we have seen, the determining factor in the struggle preceding the Restoration; it was this, again, that carried the new Government safely through the
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CHAPTER XXIV American Protest against Foreign Aggression in China—Principle of “Open Door and Equal Opportunity”—Financial Reform—Operation of Revised Treaties—The Boxer Outbreak—Russia and Manchuria.
CHAPTER XXIV American Protest against Foreign Aggression in China—Principle of “Open Door and Equal Opportunity”—Financial Reform—Operation of Revised Treaties—The Boxer Outbreak—Russia and Manchuria.
In addition to the various Agreements for the occupation of Chinese territory mentioned in the preceding chapter, negotiations were conducted with the Chinese Government about the same time by the European Powers concerned, and also by Japan, for the purpose of obtaining Declarations regarding the non-alienation by China of certain territories which were regarded by them as coming, respectively, within their special spheres of interest. As a result of these negotiations the French Minister at Pe
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CHAPTER XXV Agreement between Great Britain and Germany—The Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
CHAPTER XXV Agreement between Great Britain and Germany—The Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
Soon after the opening of negotiations for the re-establishment of friendly relations with China the Governments of Great Britain and Germany concluded an Agreement of a self-denying character which confirmed, though in different words and with special application to the situation then existing in China, the principle of the “open door and equal opportunity,” as set forth by the United States, and accepted by the Powers consulted, in the autumn of 1899 and the spring of the year following. By th
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CHAPTER XXVI War with Russia—Success of Japan—President Roosevelt’s Mediation—Treaty of Portsmouth—Peace Terms.
CHAPTER XXVI War with Russia—Success of Japan—President Roosevelt’s Mediation—Treaty of Portsmouth—Peace Terms.
The threatening attitude of Russia, who no longer made any pretence of masking her designs in China, was regarded with increasing anxiety in Japan, where the necessity of preparing to meet force with force had already been foreseen. But the high-handed proceedings of the Russians in Manchuria were not the only cause of the tension that from this moment began to appear in the relations between the two countries. Mischief of a kind which had already led to war between China and Japan was also brew
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CHAPTER XXVII Weakening of Cordiality with America—Causes of Friction—Expansion and Emigration—Annexation of Korea—New Treaties.
CHAPTER XXVII Weakening of Cordiality with America—Causes of Friction—Expansion and Emigration—Annexation of Korea—New Treaties.
Attention has already been called to the very friendly relations existing for many years between Japan and the United States, relations so cordial as to be responsible for the distinction made between the British and American nations by the Japanese Press, which spoke of the former as “Our Allies,” and of the latter as “Our best friends.” The reasons for the friendly feeling of the Japanese people for America are not far to seek. It was from America that the first ideas of Western civilization c
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CHAPTER XXVIII Rise of Japan and Germany Compared—Renewal of Anglo-Japanese Alliance—Japan and the Great War—Military and Naval Expansion—Japan and China—The Twenty-one Demands—Agreement with Russia regarding China—Lansing-Ishii Agreement—Effects of Great War on Situation in Far East.
CHAPTER XXVIII Rise of Japan and Germany Compared—Renewal of Anglo-Japanese Alliance—Japan and the Great War—Military and Naval Expansion—Japan and China—The Twenty-one Demands—Agreement with Russia regarding China—Lansing-Ishii Agreement—Effects of Great War on Situation in Far East.
The rise of Japan finds a parallel in that of Germany. There are, indeed, in the circumstances attending the development of the two countries not a few points of resemblance. In each case the direct cause was military success, and in each the long existence of feudalism had the effect of rendering a naturally warlike people submissive to the will of its rulers and responsive to the teaching of tradition. In each loyalty to the Throne was accompanied by an exaggerated form of patriotism, which ne
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CHAPTER XXIX The Japanese Family System.
CHAPTER XXIX The Japanese Family System.
More than once in the course of this narrative has reference been made to the Japanese family system, the influence of which is responsible for so much that is distinctive in the political and social life of the people. A short sketch of this system, as it works to-day, may therefore be not without interest for the reader. Prior to July, 1898, when the present Civil Code came into force, matters concerning family law were governed by local custom, which varied not only in each province, but ofte
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CHAPTER XXX Education.
CHAPTER XXX Education.
Before the Restoration the State concerned itself little with education. There were, indeed, in Yedo, as Tōkiō was then called, two or three Government schools open to youths of the military class, and similar institutions existed in the provinces, both in clan territories and in those of the Shōgun. In these instruction was given in the Chinese classics and in military accomplishments. Except for this slender provision for educational needs, the matter was left, to a great extent, in the hands
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CHAPTER XXXI The Makers of Modern Japan—How Japan is Governed.
CHAPTER XXXI The Makers of Modern Japan—How Japan is Governed.
In preceding pages some account has been given of the steps by which a Far Eastern nation has risen to its present position of a Great Power. The period occupied by this transformation is less than half a century. For during the first two decades that followed the reopening of Japan to foreign intercourse reactionary influences supported by anti-foreign feeling were, as we have seen, in the ascendant; and it was not till after the Restoration that the work of remoulding all branches of administr
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