Formation Of The Union, 1750-1829 - free ebook by Albert Bushnell Hart

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Formation Of The Union, 1750-1829

Albert Bushnell Hart

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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The second volume of the EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY aims to follow out the principles laid down for "THE COLONIES,"—the study of causes rather than of events, the development of the American nation out of scattered and inharmonious colonies. The throwing off of English control, the growth out of narrow political conditions, the struggle against foreign domination, and the extension of popular government, are all parts of the uninterrupted process of the Formation of the Union. So mighty a develo

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PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.

PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION.

During the five years since this volume of the Epochs of American History was first issued, the literature of the subject has made constant advances; and hence the Suggestions for Readers and Teachers and the bibliographies at the head of each chapter have been pruned, enlarged, and rewritten. The text has undergone fewer changes. The good-will of users of the book has pointed out some errors and inaccuracies, which have been corrected from time to time; and new light has in some cases dawned up

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SUGGESTIONS FOR READERS AND TEACHERS.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READERS AND TEACHERS.

Each of the volumes in the series is intended to be complete in itself, and to furnish an account of the period it covers sufficient for the general reader or student. Those who wish to supplement this book by additional reading or study will find useful the bibliographies at the heads of the chapters. For the use of teachers the following method is recommended. A chapter at a time may be given out to the class for their preliminary reading, or the paragraph numbers may be used in assigning less

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SCHOOL REFERENCE LIBRARY.

SCHOOL REFERENCE LIBRARY.

The following works make up a convenient reference library of secondary works for study on the period of this volume. The books should cost not more than thirty-five dollars. 1-9. The brief works enumerated in the previous list. 10. EDWARD CHANNING and ALBERT BUSHNELL HART. Guide to the Study of American History . Boston: Ginn &amp; Co., 1896.—A classified bibliography, with suggestions as to methods. 11. 12. GEORGE TICKNOR CURTIS: Constitutional History of the United States from their Decla

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LARGER REFERENCE LIBRARY.

LARGER REFERENCE LIBRARY.

For school use or for extended private reading, a larger collection of the standard works on the period 1750-1829 is necessary. The following books ought to cost about a hundred and fifty dollars. Many may be had at secondhand through dealers, or by advertising in the Publishers' Weekly . Additional titles may be found in the bibliographies at the heads of the chapters, and through the formal bibliographies, such as Foster's References to Presidential Administrations , Winsor's Narrative and Cri

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SOURCES.

SOURCES.

In the above collections are not included the sources which are necessary for proper school and college work. References will be found in the bibliographies preceding each chapter below, and through the other bibliographies there cited....

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CHAPTER I. THE AMERICANS IN 1750. 1. References—2. Colonial geography—3. The people and their distribution—4. Inherited institutions—5. Colonial development of English institutions—6. Local government in the colonies—7. Colonial government—8. English control of the colonies—9. Social and economic conditions—10. Colonial slavery.

CHAPTER I. THE AMERICANS IN 1750. 1. References—2. Colonial geography—3. The people and their distribution—4. Inherited institutions—5. Colonial development of English institutions—6. Local government in the colonies—7. Colonial government—8. English control of the colonies—9. Social and economic conditions—10. Colonial slavery.

1. Territorial Growth of the United States 2. English Colonies, 1763-1775 3. The United States, 1783 4 The United States, March 4, 1801 5. The United States, March 4, 1825 FORMATION OF THE UNION. 1750-1829...

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1. REFERENCES

1. REFERENCES

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—R. G. Thwaites, Colonies , §§ 39, 74, 90; notes to Joseph Story, Commentaries , §§ 1-197; notes to H. C. Lodge, Colonies, passim ; notes to Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , V. chs. ii.-vi., Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 130-133. HISTORICAL MAPS.—R. G. Thwaites, Colonies , Maps Nos. 1 and 4 ( Epoch Maps , Nos. 1 and 4); G. P. Fisher Colonial Era , Maps Nos. 1 and 3; Labberton, Atlas , lxiii., B. A. Hinsdale, Old Northwest (republished from MacCoun's Historical Geogr

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2. COLONIAL GEOGRAPHY.

2. COLONIAL GEOGRAPHY.

[Sidenote: British America.] By the end of the eighteenth century the term "Americans" was commonly applied in England, and even the colonists themselves, to the English- speaking subjects of Great Britain inhabiting the continent of North America and the adjacent islands. The region thus occupied comprised the Bahamas, the Bermudas, Jamaica, and some smaller West Indian islands, Newfoundland, the outlying dependency of Belize, the territory of the great trading corporation known as the Hudson's

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3. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.

3. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.

[Sidenote: Population.] This westward movement was not occasioned by the pressure of population. All the colonies, except, perhaps, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Delaware, had abundance of vacant and tillable land. The population in 1750 was about 1,370,000. It ranged from less than 5,000 in Georgia to 240,000 in Virginia. Several strains of non-English white races were included in these numbers. There were Dutch in New York, a few Swedes in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, Germans in New York and P

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4. INHERITED INSTITUTIONS.

4. INHERITED INSTITUTIONS.

[Sidenote: Sources of American government.] In comparison with other men of their time, the Americans were distinguished by the possession of new political and social ideas, which were destined to be the foundation of the American commonwealth. One of the strongest and most persistent elements in national development has been that inheritance of political traditions and usages which the new settlers brought with them. Among the more rigid sects of New England the example of the Hebrew theocracy,

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5. COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH INSTITUTIONS.

5. COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH INSTITUTIONS.

Beginning at the time of colonization with substantially the same principles of liberty and government, the two regions developed under circumstances so different that, at the end of a century and a half, they were as different from each other as from their prototype. [Sidenote: Separation of departments.] [Sidenote: Aristocracy.] The Stuart sovereigns of England steadily attempted to strengthen their power, and the resistance to that effort caused an immense growth of Parliamentary influence. T

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6. LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN THE COLONIES.

6. LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN THE COLONIES.

[Sidenote: English local government.] In each colony in 1750 were to be found two sets of governing organizations,—the local and the general. The local unit appears at different times and in different colonies under many names; there were towns, townships, manors, hundreds, ridings, liberties, parishes, plantations, shires, and counties. Leaving out of account minor variations, there were three types of local government,—town government, county government, and a combination of the two. Each of t

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7. COLONIAL GOVERNMENT.

7. COLONIAL GOVERNMENT.

[Sidenote: General form.] [Sidenote: Suffrage.] Earlier than local governments in their development, and always superior to them in powers, were the colonial governments. In 1750 there was a technical distinction between the charter governments of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, the proprietary governments of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland, and the provincial governments of the eight other continental colonies. In the first group there were charters which were substantially w

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8. ENGLISH CONTROL OF THE COLONIES.

8. ENGLISH CONTROL OF THE COLONIES.

[Sidenote: English statutes.] [Sidenote: The Crown.] [Sidenote: Parliament.] In Connecticut and Rhode Island, where the governor was not appointed by the Crown, the colonies closely approached the condition of republics; but even in these cases they acknowledged several powers in England to which they were all subject. First came English law. It was a generally accepted principle that all English statutes in effect at the time of the first colonization held good for the colonies so far as applic

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9. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS.

9. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS.

[Sidenote: Social life.] [Sidenote: Intellectual life.] [Sidenote: Economic conditions.] Thus, partly from circumstances, and partly by their own design, the colonies in 1750 were developing a political life of their own. Changes of dynasties and of sovereigns or of ministers in England little affected them. In like manner their social customs were slowly changing. The abundance of land favored the growth of a yeoman class accustomed to take part in the government. Savage neighbors made necessar

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11. REFERENCES.

11. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , V. 560-622; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 131-132. HISTORICAL MAPS.—No. 2, this volume ( Epoch Maps , No. 5); Labberton, Historical Atlas , lxiii.; B. A. Hinsdale, Old Northwest , I. 38, 63 (republished from MacCoun, Historical Geography ); S. R. Gardiner, School Atlas , No. 45; Francis Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe , frontispiece; Oldmixen, British Empire (1741); Mitchell's Map (1755); Evans's Map (1755); school histories of Channing

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12. RIVAL CLAIMS IN NORTH AMERICA (1690-1754).

12. RIVAL CLAIMS IN NORTH AMERICA (1690-1754).

[Sidenote: International rivalry.] "The firing of a gun in the woods of North America brought on a conflict which drenched Europe in blood." In this rhetorical statement is suggested the result of a great change in American conditions after 1750. For the first time in the history of the colonies the settlements of England and France were brought so near together as to provoke collisions in time of peace. The attack on the French by the Virginia troops under Washington in 1754 was an evidence tha

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13. COLLISIONS ON THE FRONTIER (1749-1754).

13. COLLISIONS ON THE FRONTIER (1749-1754).

[Sidenote: The Iroquois] For many years the final conflict had been postponed by the existence of a barrier state,—the Iroquois, or Six Nations of Indians. This fierce, brave, and statesmanlike race held a strip of the watershed from Lake Champlain to the Allegheny River. For many years they had been subject to English influence, exercised chiefly by William Johnson; but the undisturbed possession of their lands was the price of their friendship. They held back the current of immigration through

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14. THE STRENGTH OF THE PARTIES (1754).

14. THE STRENGTH OF THE PARTIES (1754).

[Sidenote: England and France.] The first organized campaign in America was in 1755. Its effect was to show that the combatants were not far from equally matched. France claimed the position of the first European power: her army was large, her soldiers well trained; her comparative weakness at sea was not yet evident. The English navy had been reduced to 17,000 men; the whole English army counted 18,000 men, of whom there were in America but 1,000. Yet England was superior when it came to buildi

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15. CONGRESS OF ALBANY (1754).

15. CONGRESS OF ALBANY (1754).

[Sidenote: Indian treaty.] [Sidenote: Union proposed] Foreseeing a general colonial war, the Lords of Trade, in September, 1753, directed the colonial governors to procure the sending of commissioners to Albany. The first purpose was to make a treaty with the Iroquois; but a suggestion was made in America that the commissioners also draw up a plan of colonial union. In June, 1754, a body of delegates assembled from the New England colonies, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The Indian treaty

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16. MILITARY OPERATIONS (1755-1757).

16. MILITARY OPERATIONS (1755-1757).

[Sidenote: Character of the war] Washington's defeat in 1754 was followed by active military preparations on both sides. So far as the number of campaigns and casualties goes, it was a war of little significance; but it was marked by romantic incidents and heroic deeds. Much of the fighting took place in the forest. The Indians showed their characteristic daring and their characteristic unwillingness to stand a long-continued, steady attack. Their scalping- knives and stakes added a fearful horr

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17. THE CONQUEST OF CANADA (1756-1780).

17. THE CONQUEST OF CANADA (1756-1780).

[Sidenote: William Pitt.] [Sidenote: Campaign of 1758.] Few characters in history are indispensable. From William of Orange to William Pitt the younger there was but one man without whom English history must have taken a different turn, and that was William Pitt the elder. In 1757 he came forward as a representative of the English people, and forced his way into leadership by the sheer weight of his character. He secured a subsidy for Prussia, which was desperately making head against France, Au

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18. GEOGRAPHICAL RESULTS OF THE WAR (1763).

18. GEOGRAPHICAL RESULTS OF THE WAR (1763).

[Sidenote: European war.] [Sidenote: George III.] [Sidenote: The war continued.] The conflict in Europe continued for three years after the colonial war was at an end. During 1758, 1759, and 1760 Frederick the Second of Prussia had held his own, with English aid; he was now to lose his ally. The sudden death of George the Second had brought to the throne the first energetic sovereign since William the Third. An early public utterance of George the Third indicated that a new dynasty had arisen: "

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19. THE COLONIES DURING THE WAR (1754-1763).

19. THE COLONIES DURING THE WAR (1754-1763).

[Sidenote: Internal quarrels.] Seven years of war from 1754 to 1760, and two years more of military excitement, had brought about significant changes in the older colonies. It was a period of great expenditure of men and money. Thirty thousand lives had been lost. The more vigorous and more exposed colonies had laid heavy taxes and incurred burdensome debts. The constant pressure of the governors for money had aggravated the old quarrels with the assemblies. The important towns were all on tide

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20. POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR (1763).

20. POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR (1763).

[Sidenote: Free from border wars.] [Sidenote: Pontiac's conspiracy.] In government as well as in trade a new era came to the colonies in 1763. Nine years had brought about many changes in the social and political conditions of the people. In the first place, they no longer had any civilized enemies. The Canadians, to be sure, were still mistrusted as papists; but though the colonists had no love for them, they had no fear of them; and twelve years later, at the outbreak of the Revolution, they t

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21. REFERENCES.

21. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—Justin Winsor, Handbook of the Revolution , 1-25, and Narrative and Critical History , VI. 62-112; W. E. Foster, Monthly Reference Lists , No. 79; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 134-136. HISTORICAL MAPS.—No. 2, this volume (Epoch Maps, No. 5); Labberton, Historical Atlas , lxiv.; Gardiner, School Atlas , No. 46; Francis Parkman, Pontiac , frontispiece; Putzger, Atlas , No. 21; B. A. Hinsdale, Old Northwest , I. 68 (reprinted from MacCoun, Historical Geography ). GENERAL ACCOUNTS.—

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22. THE CONDITION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE (1763).

22. THE CONDITION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE (1763).

[Sidenote: England's greatness.] In 1763 the English were the most powerful nation in the world. The British islands, with a population of but 8,000,000 were the administrative centre of a vast colonial empire. Besides their American possessions, the English had a foothold in Africa through the possession of the former Dutch Cape Colony, and had laid the foundation of the present Indian Empire; small islands scattered through many seas furnished naval stations and points of defence. The situatio

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23. NEW SCHEMES OF COLONIAL CONTROL (1763).

23. NEW SCHEMES OF COLONIAL CONTROL (1763).

[Sidenote: Grenville's colonial policy.] Allusion has already been made (§ 19) to vague schemes of colonial control suggested during the war. More serious measures were impending. When George Grenville became the head of the cabinet, in April, 1763, he took up and elaborated three distinctly new lines of policy, which grew to be the direct causes of the American Revolution. The first was the rigid execution of the Acts of Trade; the second was the taxation of the colonies for the partial support

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24. WRITS OF ASSISTANCE (1761-1764).

24. WRITS OF ASSISTANCE (1761-1764).

[Sidenote: Smuggling.] [Sidenote: Argument of James Otis.] Under the English acts violation of the Navigation Laws was smuggling, and was punishable in the usual courts. Two practical difficulties had always been found in prosecutions, and they were much increased as soon as a more vigorous execution was entered upon. It was hard to secure evidence, for smuggled goods, once landed, rapidly disappeared; and the lower colonial judges were both to deal severely with their brethren, engaged in a bus

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25. THE STAMP ACT (1763-1765).

25. THE STAMP ACT (1763-1765).

[Sidenote: Plan for a stamp duty.] [Sidenote: Questions of troops.] The next step in colonial control met an unexpected and violent resistance. In the winter of 1763-1764 Grenville, then English prime minister, called together the agents of the colonies and informed them that he proposed to lay a small tax upon the colonies, and that it would take the form of a stamp duty, unless they suggested some other method. Why should England tax the colonies? Because it had been determined to place a perm

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26. THE STAMP ACT CONGRESS (1765.)

26. THE STAMP ACT CONGRESS (1765.)

[Sidenote: Internal and external taxes.] Issue was now joined on the question which eventually separated the colonies from the mother-country. Parliament had asserted its right to lay taxes on the colonists for imperial purposes. The colonies had up to this time held governmental relations only with the Crown, from whom came their charters. They had escaped taxation because they were poor, and because hitherto they had not occasioned serious expense; but they had accepted the small import duties

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27. REVENUE ACTS (1767).

27. REVENUE ACTS (1767).

[Sidenote: Townshend's plans.] [Sidenote: Quarrel with New York.] The repeal of the Stamp Act removed the difficulty without removing the cause. The year 1766 was marked in English politics by the virtual retirement of Pitt from the government. His powerful opposition to taxation of the colonies was thus removed, and Charles Townshend became the leading spirit in the ministry. Jan. 26, 1767, he said in the House of Commons: "I know a mode in which a revenue may be drawn from America without offe

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28. COLONIAL PROTESTS AND REPEAL (1767-1770).

28. COLONIAL PROTESTS AND REPEAL (1767-1770).

[Sidenote: Colonial protest.] [Sidenote: Massachusetts circular.] [Sidenote: Coercive measures.] This time the colonies avoided the error of disorderly or riotous opposition. The leading men resolved to act together through protests by the colonial legislatures and through non-importation agreements. Public feeling ran high. In Pennsylvania John Dickinson in his "Letters of a Farmer" pointed out that "English history affords examples of resistance by force." Another non-importation scheme was su

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29. SPIRIT OF VIOLENCE IN THE COLONIES (1770-1773).

29. SPIRIT OF VIOLENCE IN THE COLONIES (1770-1773).

[Sidenote: Troops in Boston.] [Sidenote: Collision with the mob.] Repeal could not destroy the feeling of injury in the minds of the colonists; and repeal did not withdraw the coercive acts nor the troops. The garrison in Boston, sustained at the expense of the British treasury, was almost as offensive to the colonists of Massachusetts as if they had been taxed for its support. From the beginning the troops were looked upon as an alien body, placed in the town to execute unpopular and even illeg

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30. COERCIVE ACTS OF 1774.

30. COERCIVE ACTS OF 1774.

[Sidenote: Public feeling in England.] The British government had taken a false step by its legislation of 1770, but the colonies had now put themselves in the wrong by these repeated acts of violence. There seemed left but two alternatives,—to withdraw the Tea Act, and thus to remove the plea that Parliament was taxing without representation; or to continue the execution of the Revenue Act firmly, but by the usual course of law. It was not in the temper of the English people, and still less lik

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31. THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (1774).

31. THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (1774).

[Sidenote: Gage's quarrel with Massachusetts.] The news of this series of coercive measures was hardly received in Massachusetts before General Gage appeared, bearing a commission to act as governor of the province; and in a few weeks the Port Bill and the modifications of the charter were put in force. If the governor supposed that Boston stood alone, he was quickly undeceived. From the other towns and from other colonies came supplies of food and sympathetic resolutions. On June 17th, under th

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32. OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES (1775).

32. OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES (1775).

[Sidenote: Attitude of the Whigs.] [Sidenote: Coercion] When Parliament assembled in January, 1775, it was little disposed to make concessions; but the greatest living Englishman now came forward as the defender of the colonies. Pitt declared that the matter could only be adjusted on the basis "that taxation is theirs, and commercial regulation ours." Although he was seconded by other leading Whigs, the reply of the Tory ministry to the remonstrance of the colonies was a new series of acts. Mass

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33. JUSTIFICATION OF THE REVOLUTION.

33. JUSTIFICATION OF THE REVOLUTION.

[Sidenote: Malcontents put down.] The cause of Massachusetts was unhesitatingly taken up by all the colonies, from New Hampshire to Georgia. America was united. This unanimity proceeded, however, not from the people, but from suddenly constituted revolutionary governments. No view of the Revolution could be just which does not recognize the fact that in no colony was there a large majority in favor of resistance, and in some the patriots were undoubtedly in a minority. The movement, started by a

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34. REFERENCES.

34. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , VI. passim , VII. 1-214, VIII. App.; and Readers' Handbook of the Revolution ; W. F. Allen, History Topics , 107, 108; W. E. Foster, References to the Constitution of the United States , 11-14; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 136-141. HISTORICAL MAPS.—Nos. 2 and 3 this volume ( Epoch Maps , Nos. 4 and 5); H. C Lodge, Colonies , frontispiece; Scribner, Statistical Atlas , Pl. 12; Rhode, Atlas , No. xxviii.; Geo. Bancroft, United States

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35. THE STRENGTH OF THE COMBATANTS (1775).

35. THE STRENGTH OF THE COMBATANTS (1775).

[Sidenote: Power of Great Britain.] When we compare the population and resources of the two countries, the defiance of the colonists seems almost foolhardy. In 1775 England, Ireland, and Scotland together had from eight to ten million souls; while the colonies numbered but three millions. Great Britain had a considerable system of manufactures, and the greatest foreign commerce in the world, and rich colonies in every quarter of the globe poured wealth into her lap. What she lacked she could buy

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36. THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (1775).

36. THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS (1775).

[Sidenote: Conception of a "Congress."] Before the war could be fought, some kind of civil organization had to be formed. On May 10, 1775, three weeks after the battle of Lexington, the second Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia, and continued, with occasional adjournments, till May 1, 1781. To the minds of the men of that day a congress was not a legislature, but a diplomatic assembly, a meeting of delegates for conference, and for suggestions to their principals. To be sure, this Co

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37. THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT FORMED (1775).

37. THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT FORMED (1775).

[Sidenote: War in Massachusetts.] [Sidenote: National military measures.] The situation rapidly passed beyond the stage of advice. The people of Massachusetts and the neighboring colonies, on their own motion, had shut up the governor of the colony and his troops in the town of Boston, and were formally besieging him. On June 17 the British made their last sortie, and attacked and defeated the besieging forces at Bunker Hill. Neither the country nor Congress could long stand still. Precisely a w

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38. INDEPENDENCE DECLARED (1776).

38. INDEPENDENCE DECLARED (1776).

[Sidenote: Tendency towards independence.] Under the direction of Congress and the command of General Washington the siege of Boston was successfully pushed forward during the winter of 1775- 76. From the beginning of the struggle to this time two political currents had been running side by side,—the one towards a union of the colonies, the other towards independence. Of these the current of union had run a little faster. Notwithstanding the authority which they had set over themselves, the colo

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39. NEW STATE GOVERNMENTS FORMED (1775-1777).

39. NEW STATE GOVERNMENTS FORMED (1775-1777).

[Sidenote: Is the Union older than the States?] [Sidenote: Revolutionary governments.] A practical result of the Declaration of Independence was that from that day each colony assumed the name of State; and the union changed its name of "The United Colonies" to the proud title of "The United States of America." Were the new States essentially different from the colonies? This is one of the insoluble questions connected with the formation of the Union. Calhoun later declared that the Declaration

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40. THE FIRST PERIOD OF THE WAR (1775-1778).

40. THE FIRST PERIOD OF THE WAR (1775-1778).

[Sidenote: British military policy.] Two policies presented themselves to the British government at the beginning of the war. They might have used their great naval strength alone, blockading the coast and sealing every harbor; thus the colonies would be cut off from the rest of the world, and allowed to enjoy their independence until they were ready to return to their allegiance. The alternative of invasion was chosen; but it was useless, with the forces available, to occupy any considerable pa

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41. FOREIGN RELATIONS (1776-1780).

41. FOREIGN RELATIONS (1776-1780).

[Sidenote: Interest of France.] [Sidenote: English plan of reconciliation.] From the beginning of the American struggle the French government had looked on with interest and pleasure. The arrogance of England during the previous war and during the negotiations of 1763 had excited a general dislike throughout Europe. When, in June, 1776, Silas Deane appeared at Paris as the American envoy, he found, not recognition, but at least sympathy and assistance. Beaumarchais, a play-writer and adventurer,

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42. THE WAR ENDED (1778-1782).

42. THE WAR ENDED (1778-1782).

[Sidenote: Stubbornness of George III.] [Sidenote: Campaign of 1778.] The European crisis was favorable to the Americans; the British government had hitherto been unable to reduce them; the Germans would furnish no more mercenaries; a strong minority in Parliament opposed the American war; France had declared war in March, 1778, and Spain was about to follow. Proper reinforcements could not be sent to America. The country cried out for Pitt, who had declared himself positively against American i

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43. FINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION (1775-1783).

43. FINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION (1775-1783).

[Sidenote: Resources.] The successful termination of the war is the more remarkable because it was fought by a government almost without means, and finally without credit. The saddest part of the suffering at Valley Forge is that it was unnecessary. There was always food and clothing in the country, but Congress had no money to buy it. Congress had no power to lay taxes, and the colonies, most of which were spending large sums on their own militia, were not disposed to supply the general treasur

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44. INTERNAL DIFFICULTIES (1775-1782).

44. INTERNAL DIFFICULTIES (1775-1782).

[Sidenote: Weakness of Congress.] That Congress was able to make no better provision for the finances was due to a decline in its prestige rather than to a lack of interest in the war. Some of the ablest members were drawn into military service, or sent on foreign missions. The committee system made it inefficient, and it was difficult to bring it to a decision upon the most important matters. In vain did Washington storm, and implore it to act quickly and intelligently on military matters of gr

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45. FORMATION OF A CONSTITUTION (1776-1781).

45. FORMATION OF A CONSTITUTION (1776-1781).

[Sidenote: Preliminaries of a constitution.] [Sidenote: Articles submitted.] One cause of the weakness of Congress and the disorders in the States was the want of a settled national government. The Continental Congress understood that it was but a makeshift, and on the day when a committee was formed to frame a Declaration of Independence, another committee was appointed to draw up Articles of Confederation. It reported July 12, 1776; but the moment discussion began, it was seen that there were

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46. PEACE NEGOTIATED (1779-1782).

46. PEACE NEGOTIATED (1779-1782).

[Sidenote: Instructions of 1779.] [Sidenote: Instructions of 1781.] Thus the settlement of the final terms of peace fell to the new government, but rather as a heritage than as a new task. Instructions issued by Congress in 1779 had insisted, as a first essential, on an acknowledgment by Great Britain of the independence of the United States. Next, adequate boundaries were to be provided; the United States must extend as far west as the Mississippi, as far south as the thirty-first parallel, and

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47. POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR.

47. POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR.

[Sidenote: American union.] Thus in seven years America had advanced from the condition of a body of subordinate colonies to that of a nation. Furthermore, the people, who at the beginning of the struggle were scattered and separated, and who scarcely knew each other, were now united under a government; the Confederation, however weak, was the strongest federation then in existence. The people had learned the lesson of acting together in a great national crisis, and of accepting the limitations

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48. REFERENCES

48. REFERENCES

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , VI. 745, VII. 199-236, 527-543, VIII. 491;, notes to Curtis, Bancroft, McMaster, and Pitkin; W. F. Foster, References to the Constitution , 12-14; J. J. Lalor, Cyclopedia , I. 577; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 142, 149-153. HISTORICAL MAPS.—Nos. 1, 3, this volume ( Epoch Maps , Nos. 6, 7); Labberton, Atlas , lxvi.; Rhode, Atlas , No. xxviii.; Johnston, History of the United States for Schools , 133; Gordon American Revolution , I.

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49. THE UNITED STATES IN 1781.

49. THE UNITED STATES IN 1781.

[Sidenote: Army.] [Sidenote: Territory.] The task thrown upon Congress in 1781 would have tried the strongest government in existence. An army of more than ten thousand men was under arms, and must be kept up until peace was formally declared, and then must be paid off. The territorial claims of the States and of the Union were still in confusion. Virginia roused the suspicion of the small States by making the promised cession in terms which Congress could not accept, and the other States had ma

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60. FORM OF THE GOVERNMENT (1781-1788.)

60. FORM OF THE GOVERNMENT (1781-1788.)

[Sidenote: Congress.] The first and fundamental defect of the government was in the organization of Congress. The Continental Congress had been a head without a body; under the Articles of Confederation, Congress was a body without a head. A single assembly continued to be the source of all national legislative, executive, and judicial power (§ 37). As though to prevent the country from getting the benefit of experience, no man could remain a member of Congress for more than three years in succe

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51. DISBANDMENT OF THE ARMY (1783.)

51. DISBANDMENT OF THE ARMY (1783.)

To follow the history of the Confederation from year to year would be unprofitable. It was a confused period, with no recognized national leaders, no parties, no great crises. We shall therefore take up one after another the important questions which arose, and follow each to the end of the Confederation. [Sidenote: Half-pay question.] [Sidenote: Protests.] The first duty of Congress after peace was declared was to cut off the military expenditures (§ 42). The food, clothing, and pay of the army

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52. TERRITORIAL SETTLEMENT WITH THE STATES (1781-1802).

52. TERRITORIAL SETTLEMENT WITH THE STATES (1781-1802).

[Sidenote: The Western claims.] [Sidenote: Northwest cessions.] Although Congress had no power, under the Articles of Confederation, to regulate territory, it earnestly urged the States to cede their claims. The Ohio River divided the Western country into two regions, each having a separate territorial history. The northern part was claimed by Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, on the ground that their old charters, extending to the Pacific, were revived (§ 45). The United States, as repr

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53. FINANCES (1781-1788).

53. FINANCES (1781-1788).

[Sidenote: Financial status.] [Sidenote: Requisitions.] The financial condition of the Confederation was throughout deplorable (§ 43). The Revolution imposed upon the country a heavy debt. The accounts of the government were so badly kept that to this day it is impossible to state the amount; but it was probably about thirty millions, with an annual interest charge of about two millions. The necessary expenditure for the support of Congress, of the army on a peace-footing, and of the executive a

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54. DISORDERS IN THE STATES (1781-1788).

54. DISORDERS IN THE STATES (1781-1788).

[Sidenote: State financial legislation.] The finances of the States were little better than those of the Union. The States controlled all the resources of the country; they could and did raise taxes, but they appropriated the proceeds to their own pressing necessities; and the meagre sums paid to Congress represented a genuine sacrifice on the part of many States, particularly Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. Unfortunately the States exercised unlimited powers over their own currency and commerci

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55. SLAVERY (1777-1788).

55. SLAVERY (1777-1788).

[Sidenote: Anti-slavery spirit.] [Sidenote: Emancipation acts.] [Sidenote: Southern sentiment.] One evidence that the States were still sound and healthful was the passage of Emancipation acts. The Revolutionary principles of the rights of man, the consent of the governed, and political equality, had been meant for white men; but it was hard to deny their logical application to the blacks. New anti-slavery societies were formed, particularly in Pennsylvania; but the first community to act was Ve

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56. FOREIGN RELATIONS AND COMMERCE (1781-1788).

56. FOREIGN RELATIONS AND COMMERCE (1781-1788).

[Sidenote: Relations with England.] In no respect, not even in finance, was the weakness of the Confederation so evident as in the powerlessness of Congress to pass commercial laws, and its consequent inability to secure commercial treaties. In 1785 John Adams was sent as minister to Great Britain, and was received with civility by the sovereign from whom he had done so much to tear the brightest jewel of his crown; but when he endeavored to come to some commercial arrangement, he could make no

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57. DISINTEGRATION OF THE UNION (1786, 1787).

57. DISINTEGRATION OF THE UNION (1786, 1787).

[Sidenote: The Confederation violated.] [Sidenote: Danger of anarchy.] The year 1786 marks a crisis in the development of the Union. The inefficiency of Congress was reflected in the neglect of constitutional duties by the States: Rhode Island recalled her delegates, and refused to appoint new members; New Jersey felt so much injured by a New York tariff that an act was passed taxing the lighthouse established by New York on Sandy Hook; Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Georgia al

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58. REORGANIZATION ATTEMPTED (1781-1787).

58. REORGANIZATION ATTEMPTED (1781-1787).

[Sidenote: Five percent scheme.] [Sidenote: Revenue scheme.] Before the Articles of Confederation had gone into effect, Congress had already proposed a radical amendment; and within three years it suggested two others. The first proposition, made February 3, 1781, was that the States allow Congress to levy an import duty of five per cent, the proceeds to be applied "to the discharge of the principal and interest of the debts already contracted … on the faith of the United States for supporting t

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59. REFERENCES.

59. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—P. L. Ford, Bibliography and Reference List of the Constitution ; Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , VII. 256-266; W. E. Foster, References to the Constitution , 15, 21; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 154-156; A. B. Hart, Federal Government , §§ 38, 469. HISTORICAL MAPS.—As in § 48 above, § 69 below. GENERAL ACCOUNTS.—J. B. McMaster, People of the United States , I. 416-524; R. Hildreth, United States , III. 482-546; T. Pitkin, United States , II. 218-316; H. C. Lodge

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60. THE FEDERAL CONVENTION ASSEMBLED (1787).

60. THE FEDERAL CONVENTION ASSEMBLED (1787).

[Sidenote: A convention suggested.] [Sidenote: Annapolis Convention.] [Sidenote: Action of Congress.] That Congress did not possess the confidence of the country was evident from the failure of all its amendments. It had, therefore, been suggested first by Hamilton in 1780, later by Tom Paine in his widespread pamphlet "Public Good," that a convention be specially summoned to revise the Articles of Confederation. The initiative in the movement was finally taken by the States. In 1786 the intoler

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61. DIFFICULTIES OF THE CONVENTION (1787).

61. DIFFICULTIES OF THE CONVENTION (1787).

[Sidenote: Task of the convention.] When on May 25, 1787, the convention assembled at Philadelphia, its task, under the call of Congress, was limited to the preparation of amendments to the old Confederation. The first formal resolution to which it came after organization reads as follows: "That a national government ought to be established, consisting of a supreme legislature, executive, and judiciary." The convention from the beginning was evidently resolved to recommend a new, elaborate, and

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62. SOURCES OF THE CONSTITUTION.

62. SOURCES OF THE CONSTITUTION.

[Sidenote: American experience.] Another popular delusion with regard to the Constitution is that it was created out of nothing; or, as Mr. Gladstone puts it, that "It is the greatest work ever struck off at any one time by the mind and purpose of man." The radical view on the other side is expressed by Sir Henry Maine, who informs us that the "Constitution of the United States is a modified version of the British Constitution … which was in existence between 1760 and 1787." The real source of t

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63. THE GREAT COMPROMISES (1787).

63. THE GREAT COMPROMISES (1787).

[Sidenote: State sovereignty.] It was a long time before a compromise between the discordant elements could be reached. To declare the country a centralized nation was to destroy the traditions of a century and a half: to leave it an assemblage of States, each claiming independence and sovereignty, was to throw away the results of the Revolution. The convention finally agreed that while the Union should be endowed with adequate powers, the States should retain all powers not specifically granted

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64. DETAILS OF THE CONSTITUTION (1787).

64. DETAILS OF THE CONSTITUTION (1787).

[Sidenote: Difficult questions.] These difficult points out of the way, the convention arranged the details of the new government. One of the principal minor questions was the method of presidential election. Many members inclined towards an executive council; instead, it was agreed that there should be a President elected by Congress; but almost at the last moment, on September 7, the better plan of indirect election by the people was adopted. At one time the convention had agreed that Congress

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65. DIFFICULTIES OF RATIFICATION (1787, 1788).

65. DIFFICULTIES OF RATIFICATION (1787, 1788).

[Sidenote: Action of Congress.] [Sidenote: Action of legislatures.] The text of the Constitution was printed and rapidly distributed throughout the Union. It was still but a lifeless draft, and before it could become an instrument of government the approving action of Congress, of the legislatures, and of State conventions was necessary. Congress, on Sept. 28, 1787, unanimously resolved that the Constitution be transmitted to State legislatures. The federal convention had determined that the con

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66. STATE CONVENTIONS (1787, 1788).

66. STATE CONVENTIONS (1787, 1788).

[Sidenote: First nine states.] As the State conventions assembled, the excitement grew more intense. Four States alone contained within a few thousands of half the population of the Union: they were Massachusetts, Virginia, New York, and North Carolina. In the convention of each of these States there was opposition strong and stubborn; one of them—North Carolina—adjourned without action; in the other three, ratification was obtained with extreme difficulty and by narrow majorities. The first Sta

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67. EXPIRATION OF THE CONFEDERATION (1788).

67. EXPIRATION OF THE CONFEDERATION (1788).

[Sidenote: The old Congress.] During the session of the convention in Philadelphia Congress had continued to sit in New York, and the Northwest Ordinance was passed at this time (§ 52). On Sept. 13, 1788 Congress voted that the Constitution had been ratified, and that elections should proceed for the officers of the new government, which was to go into operation the first Wednesday in March, 1789. [Sidenote: Seat of government.] [Sidenote: Congress expires.] Since Congress and the President must

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68. WAS THE CONSTITUTION A COMPACT?

68. WAS THE CONSTITUTION A COMPACT?

[Sidenote: The Constitution irregular.] The third attempt to form an organic union was now successfully carried out. The irregular authority of the Continental Congress had been replaced by the legal but inefficient Confederation; to this was now to succeed an organized government, complete in all its departments, and well endowed with powers. How had this Constitution been adopted? What was the authority which had taken upon itself to diminish the powers of the States, and to disregard the clau

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69. REFERENCES.

69. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—W. E. Foster, References to Presidential Administrations , 1-5; References to the Constitution , 18, 19; Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , VII. 299-309, 323-329, 413-418, 446, 454, VIII. App.; P. L. Ford, Bibliotheca Hamiltonia ; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 157-161. HISTORICAL MAPS.—Nos. 1 and 3, this volume, and No. 1 in W. Wilson, Division and Reunion ( Epoch Maps , Nos. 6, 7, and 8); T. MacCoun, Historical Geography ; Scribner, Statistical Atlas , Plate 13. GEN

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70. GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1789.

70. GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1789.

[Sidenote: Boundary questions.] What were the physical, social, and political conditions under which the new government was to be established? In 1789 the exterior boundaries of the country were loosely defined by treaty (§ 46), but were not yet marked out, and there were several serious controversies. From the mouth of the St, Croix River to the head of the Connecticut the boundary was in confusion, and no progress had been made towards settling it. The water- line through the St. Lawrence and

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71. THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1789.

71. THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1789.

[Sidenote: Population.] A census taken in 1790 gives us the number of inhabitants as a little under 4,000,000. Of these, 750,000—nearly one-fifth of the whole population—were negroes. Of the 3,170,000 whites, the ancestors of eight- tenths were probably English, and most of the others spoke English and were a homogeneous part of the community. Counting by sections, the States north of Maryland had a population of 1,968,000, and those south of Pennsylvania had 1,925,000; the States which were to

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72. POLITICAL METHODS IN 1789.

72. POLITICAL METHODS IN 1789.

[Sidenote: Current political theories.] The chief intellectual interest of the people was in politics. The State and the national constitutions both protected freedom of speech, and Americans were accustomed freely to discuss public men and public measures. Public opinion was, however, created by a comparatively small number of persons,—the leading planters of the South, merchants and great families in the Middle States, the gentlemen and clergy in New England. Already two different schools of p

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73. ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS (1789).

73. ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS (1789).

[Sidenote: First congressional election.] The first step in the organization of the government was to elect senators and representatives. The Senate was small, and was expected to be a kind of executive council. In due time John Adams was chosen vice-president, and became chairman. The Senate sat for several years in secret session; but from the journal of William Maclay, senator from Pennsylvania, we learn many interesting details, and know that the casting vote of the chairman was often necess

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74. ORGANIZATION OF THE EXECUTIVE (1789, 1790).

74. ORGANIZATION OF THE EXECUTIVE (1789, 1790).

[Sidenote: The first President.] While the senators and representatives were being selected, Presidential electors were also chosen in all the eleven States except New York. The States exercised their constitutional discretion: in some the electors were chosen by the legislatures, in others by general ticket, and in others by districts. In one thing they agreed: when quorums of both houses were obtained, so that the votes could be counted, April 6, 1789, it was found that every elector had cast

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75. ORGANIZATION OF THE COURTS (1789-1793).

75. ORGANIZATION OF THE COURTS (1789-1793).

[Sidenote: The Judiciary Act.] By the Constitution there was to be a supreme court and such inferior courts as Congress should create. By the Act of Sept. 24, 1789 the federal judicial system was organized substantially as it now stands. Following the precedent of some of the States, two grades of inferior courts were created,—the district and the circuit. The judicial business of the country was small, and for the time being the supreme justices were to hold the circuit courts. Prosecuting offi

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76. REVENUE AND PROTECTION (1789-1792).

76. REVENUE AND PROTECTION (1789-1792).

[Sidenote: Revenue scheme.] The first necessity of the new government was to lay the taxes authorized under the new Constitution for its own support, for the payment of interest, and eventually for sinking the principal of the public debt. Two days after the House organized, Madison introduced a scheme, which eventually passed into the first tariff act. On May 13, 1789, after agreeing to a duty on "looking-glasses and brushes," it was moved to lay a tax of ten dollars each on imported slaves. A

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77. NATIONAL AND STATE DEBTS (1789, 1790).

77. NATIONAL AND STATE DEBTS (1789, 1790).

[Sidenote: The debt funded.] The third part of Hamilton's scheme was to fund the national debt into one system of bonds, and to pay the interest. When he assumed control of the Treasury he found, as nearly as could be calculated, ten millions of foreign debt with about two millions of accrued interest, and twenty-nine millions of domestic debt with eleven millions of accrued interest,—a total of more than fifty-two millions. So far as there was any sale for United States securities they had fall

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78. UNITED STATES BANK (1791, 1792).

78. UNITED STATES BANK (1791, 1792).

[Sidenote: A bank proposed.] Having thus reorganized the finances of the country, Hamilton now proposed the fifth part of his scheme,—the establishment of a national bank. In a report of Dec. 14, 1790, he presented the subject to the attention of Congress. He urged that it would benefit the public by offering an investment, that it would aid the government in making loans and by collecting taxes, and that its notes would be a useful currency. Hamilton drafted a bill, which was an adaptation of t

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79. SLAVERY QUESTIONS (1789-1798).

79. SLAVERY QUESTIONS (1789-1798).

[Sidenote: Anti-slavery memorials.] The question of the extent of the powers of Congress had already once been raised. On February 11 and 12, 1790, there were presented to Congress two memorials, the one the "Address of the People called Quakers, in their Annual Assembly convened;" the other the "Memorial of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery." These memorials asked Congress to "exert upright endeavors, to the full extent of your power, to remove every obstruction to

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80. THE SUCCESS OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT.

80. THE SUCCESS OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT.

[Sidenote: The government established.] The end of Washington's first administration in March, 1793, saw the government completely organized, and accepted throughout the Union. The distinction between friends and opponents of the Constitution had entirely disappeared. There was no longer any suggestion of substantial amendment. Two Congresses had gone through their work, and had accustomed the people to a national legislature. The President had made appointments, sent ambassadors, commanded the

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81. REFERENCES.

81. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—W. E. Foster, References to Presidential Administrations , 1-8; Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , VII. 294-314, 319, 320, 329-336, 454-456, 513-519; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 162, 166. HISTORICAL MAPS.—Nos. 1, 4, this volume ( Epoch Maps , Nos. 7, 9); MacCoun, Historical Geography ; Scribner, Statistical Atlas , Plate 13; J. Morse, American Geography . GENERAL ACCOUNTS.—J. B McMaster, United States , II. 89-557; H. Von Holst, Constitutional History , I. 112-167;

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82. FORMATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES (1792-1794).

82. FORMATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES (1792-1794).

[Sidenote: Origin of parties.] During the four uneventful years from 1789 to 1793 two political parties had been slowly developed. Some writers have imagined that these two parties were a survival of the Revolutionary Whigs and Tories; some have traced them back to the debate on the assumption of State debts. John Adams, years later, went to the heart of the matter when he said: "You say our divisions began with Federalism and anti-Federalism. Alas! they began with human nature." The foundation

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83. WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND ENGLAND (1793).

83. WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND ENGLAND (1793).

[Sidenote: French Revolution.] [Sidenote: War.] So far the parties had been little more than personal followings; the mighty movements in Europe were now to crystallize them. Early in 1789 a revolution had come about in France; in 1791 a constitution was put in force under which the king became a limited monarch; in 1792 war broke out between France and a Prussian-Austrian alliance. Disasters on the frontier were followed by the overthrow of the monarchy, and in January, 1793, Louis the Sixteent

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84. AMERICAN NEUTRALITY (1793).

84. AMERICAN NEUTRALITY (1793).

[Sidenote: Neutrality proclamation.] On April 5, 1793, the news of the outbreak of war was received at Philadelphia. Washington at once summoned his cabinet for the most important discussion which it had yet held. Was the United States to consider itself bound to enter the war and to defend the French West Indies against Great Britain? Should the President declare that the United States stood neutral in this contest? The question was new. For the first time in history there was an independent Am

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85. THE JAY TREATY (1794-1796).

85. THE JAY TREATY (1794-1796).

[Sidenote: American grievances.] [Sidenote: Neutral rights.] Once more the English government neglected the favorable moment for securing the friendship of the United States. The grievances so much resented under the Confederation (§ 56) were continued: the Western posts were still occupied by the British; American vessels still paid unreasonable duties in British ports; the West India trade was still withheld. The war at once led to new aggressions. France and England throughout sought to limit

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86. THE WHISKEY REBELLION (1794).

86. THE WHISKEY REBELLION (1794).

[Sidenote: The excise unpopular.] [Sidenote: Outbreak.] During this year of excitement a serious outbreak had occurred in Pennsylvania. Ever since the first Excise Act in 1791 (§ 76), there had been determined opposition to the collection of the whiskey tax. The people of southwestern Pennsylvania were three hundred miles from tide- water; and whiskey was the only commodity of considerable value, in small bulk, with which they could purchase goods. The tax, therefore, affected the whole communit

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87. ELECTION OF JOHN ADAMS (1796).

87. ELECTION OF JOHN ADAMS (1796).

[Sidenote: Washington retires.] [Sidenote: Nominations.] On Sept. 17, 1796, Washington, in a public address, announced that he should not accept a re-election. The presidency had been irksome to Washington, and the personal attacks upon himself had grieved him; but he retired with the admiration and respect of the whole country. The selection of a successor at once became a party question. Jefferson, who had resigned the office of Secretary of State at the end of 1793, was the natural leader of

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88. BREACH WITH FRANCE (1795-1798).

88. BREACH WITH FRANCE (1795-1798).

[Sidenote: Monroe's mission.] While the war-cloud with England was gathering and disappearing, new complications had arisen with France. The Jay treaty was received by that power as an insult, partly because it was favorable to her rival, partly because it removed the danger of war between England and the United States. In 1795 the first period of the Revolution was over, and an efficient government was constituted, with an executive directory of five. James Monroe, appointed minister to France,

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89. ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS (1798).

89. ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS (1798).

[Sidenote: Triumph of the Federalists.] [Sidenote: Alien Act.] For the first and last time in his administration John Adams found himself popular. From all parts of the country addresses were sent to the President approving his patriotic stand. The moderate Republicans in the House were swept away by the current, and thus there was built up a compact Federalist majority in both houses. It proceeded deliberately to destroy its own party. The newspapers had now reached an extraordinary degree of v

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90. VIRGINIA AND KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS (1798-1800).

90. VIRGINIA AND KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS (1798-1800).

[Sidenote: Danger of disunion.] [Sidenote: Madison's and Jefferson's resolutions.] The elections of 1798 in the excited state of public feeling assured a Federalist majority in the Congress to sit from 1799 to 1801. The Republicans felt that their adversaries were using the power of the federal government to destroy the rights of the people. June 1, 1798, Jefferson wrote to a friend who thought that the time was come to withdraw from the Union; "If on the temporary superiority of one party the o

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91. ELECTION OF 1800-1801.

91. ELECTION OF 1800-1801.

[Sidenote: Peace with France.] [Sidenote: Breach in the party.] The Alien and Sedition Acts had quickly destroyed all Adams's popularity in the Republican party; his later action deprived him of the united support of the Federalists. War with France was pleasing to them as an assertion of national dignity, as a protest against the growth of dangerous democracy in France, and as a step toward friendship or eventual alliance with England. Early in 1799 Talleyrand intimated that a minister would no

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92. CAUSES OF THE FALL OF THE FEDERALISTS.

92. CAUSES OF THE FALL OF THE FEDERALISTS.

[Sidenote: Unpopularity of the Federalists.] [Sidenote: Judiciary Act.] The electoral majority was small; the Federalists preserved their organization, and had the prestige of twelve years of administration; it was impossible to realize that there never again would be a Federalist president. In the election of 1804, however, they received but fourteen electoral votes altogether (§ 100). The reasons for this downfall are many, However popular the French war had been, the taxes made necessary by i

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93. REFERENCES.

93. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—W. E. Foster, References to Presidential Administrations , 8-12; Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , VII. 310, 315-320, 336-341, 418-420, 519-522, 527-547; H. B. Tompkins, Bibliotheca Jeffersoniana ; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 167-171. HISTORICAL MAPS.—Nos. 1 and 4, this volume ( Epoch Maps , Nos. 7 and 9); Labberton, Atlas Nos. lxvi., lxvii.; MacCoun, Historical Geography ; Scribner, Statistical Atlas , Plates 13, 14. GENERAL ACCOUNTS.—J. B. McMaster, People of th

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94. THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION OF 1801.

94. THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION OF 1801.

[Sidenote: Character of Jefferson.] To the mind of the Federalists the success of the Republicans, and particularly the elevation of Jefferson, meant a complete change in the government which they had been laboring to establish. Jefferson was to them the type of dangerous liberality in thought, in religion, and in government. In his tastes and his habits, his reading and investigation, Jefferson was half a century in advance of his contemporaries. Books and letters from learned men constantly ca

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95. JEFFERSON'S CIVIL SERVICE (1801-1803).

95. JEFFERSON'S CIVIL SERVICE (1801-1803).

[Sidenote: Jefferson's principles.] In a few weeks the disposition to conciliate was severely tried by the pressure of applicants for office. Jefferson's principles on this subject were summed up in a letter written March 24, 1801: "I will expunge the effects of Mr. A.'s indecent conduct in crowding nominations after he knew they were not for himself…. Some removals must be made for misconduct…. Of the thousands of officers, therefore, in the United States a very few individuals only, probably n

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96. ATTACK ON THE JUDICIARY (1801-1805).

96. ATTACK ON THE JUDICIARY (1801-1805).

[Sidenote: Repeal of the Judiciary Act.] Moderation in Jefferson's mind did not extend to the judiciary which had been forced upon the country by the Federalists in 1801. At his suggestion Breckenridge, in 1802, moved to repeal the recent Act, and thus to get rid at once of the new courts and of the incumbents. The Federalists protested that the Constitution was being destroyed. "I stand," said Gouverneur Morris, "in the presence of Almighty God and of the world, and I declare to you that if you

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97. THE POLICY OF RETRENCHMENT (1801-1809).

97. THE POLICY OF RETRENCHMENT (1801-1809).

[Sidenote: Federal finance.] Although the effort to check the power of the judiciary failed, in another direction Jefferson struck out a new and popular policy. Under the Federalists the taxes had increased from $3,600,000 in 1792 to $10,700,000 in 1800. This increase had been more than balanced by the growth of expenditures. The Indian and French wars had brought unexpected expenses upon the government, and the construction of a little navy was still going on, In 1793 the government spent $3,80

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98. BARBARY WARS (1801-1806).

98. BARBARY WARS (1801-1806).

[Sidenote: The navy.] The Peace Establishment Act of March 3, 1801, authorized the President to sell all the vessels of the navy except thirteen frigates, of which only six were to be kept in commission; and the number of naval officers was reduced from five hundred to two hundred. "I shall really be chagrined," wrote Jefferson, "if the water in the Eastern Branch will not admit our laying up the whole seven there in time of peace, because they would be under the immediate eye of the department,

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99. ANNEXATION OF LOUISIANA (1803).

99. ANNEXATION OF LOUISIANA (1803).

[Sidenote: Jefferson's political principles.] Jefferson came into power as a stickler for a limited government, confined chiefly to foreign and commercial affairs. He now entered upon the most brilliant episode of his administration,—the annexation of Louisiana; and that transaction was carried out and defended upon precisely the grounds of loose construction which he had so much contemned. [Sidenote: Napoleon's colonial system.] In 1763 France had two flourishing American colonies,—Louisiana an

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100. FEDERAL SCHEMES OF DISUNION (1803-1809).

100. FEDERAL SCHEMES OF DISUNION (1803-1809).

[Sidenote: Anger of the Federalists.] [Sidenote: Arguments for annexation.] The annexation of Louisiana aroused a storm in both hemispheres. The Spanish government vehemently protested, the more because the promised kingdom of Etruria proved to be but a mock principality. In the United States the Federalists attacked both the annexation and the method of annexation with equal violence. The treaty promised that the people should as soon as possible be admitted as a State into the Union; the balan

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101. THE BURR CONSPIRACY (1806-1807).

101. THE BURR CONSPIRACY (1806-1807).

[Sidenote: Burr's schemes.] The election of 1804 was the last attempt of Aaron Burr to re-enter public life. His private character, already sufficiently notorious, had been destroyed by the murder of Hamilton, and he was a desperate man. In 1805 Burr went West, and was well received by many prominent men, including General Wilkinson, the senior officer of the United States army, and Andrew Jackson, then a lawyer in Nashville, Tennessee. His purposes were vague: he planned the establishment of a

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102. AGGRESSIONS ON NEUTRAL TRADE (1803-1807).

102. AGGRESSIONS ON NEUTRAL TRADE (1803-1807).

[Sidenote: American trade.] [Sidenote: Admiralty decisions.] The renewal of the war between England and France in May, 1803, at first was advantageous to the United States; it precipitated the cession of Louisiana and it gave new employment for American shipping. French West Indian products were freely imported, re-shipped, and exported, thus avoiding the rule of 1756 (§ 85); as a result, the customs revenue leaped in one year from fourteen to twenty millions. In 1805 these favorable conditions

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103. POLICY OF NON-RESISTANCE (1805-1807).

103. POLICY OF NON-RESISTANCE (1805-1807).

[Sidenote: Prosperity of American trade.] The wholesale seizure of American property was exasperating to the last degree. The disdainful impressment of American seamen, and still more the unofficial blockade of the ports, would have justified war. Yet notwithstanding the loss of American shipping, trade continued to prosper, and vessels engaged in foreign commerce increased; freights were so high that an annual loss by capture of ten per cent could be made up out of the profits. The New Englande

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104. THE EMBARGO (1807-1808).

104. THE EMBARGO (1807-1808).

[Sidenote: Jefferson's recommendations.] The Non-importation Act, which up to this time had had no force, finally went into effect Dec. 14, 1807. Two days later news was received that the king had ordered British naval officers to exercise their assumed right of impressment. Forthwith Jefferson sent a message to Congress, hinting that England was about to prohibit American commerce altogether, and recommending an embargo so as to prevent the loss of our ships and seamen. The Senate hurried a bil

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105. REPEAL OF THE EMBARGO (1809).

105. REPEAL OF THE EMBARGO (1809).

[Sidenote: Effect on England.] When Congress assembled in December, 1808, the effect of the embargo was manifest. English merchants engaged in the American trade protested, and asked the British government to withdraw its Orders in Council. Lord Castlereagh declared that the embargo was "operating at present more forcibly in our favor than any measure of hostility we could call forth, without war actually declared;" English trade to the amount of $25,000,000 was, indeed, cut off; but notwithstan

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106. REFERENCES.

106. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—W. E. Foster, References to Presidential Administrations , 12-15; J. Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , VII. 320-323, 341-343, 420-437, 457-460, 522-524; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 170-173. HISTORICAL MAPS.—Nos. 1 and 4, this volume ( Epoch Maps , Nos. 7 and 9); T. MacCoun, Historical Geography ; Henry Adams, United States , VI, VII., VIII., passim ; Anderson, Canada (1814); Arrowsmith, Map of the United States (1813); Scribner, Statistical Atlas , Plate 14; school histo

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107. NON-INTERCOURSE LAWS (1809, 1810).

107. NON-INTERCOURSE LAWS (1809, 1810).

[Sidenote: Madison's administration.] James Madison, who became President March 4, 1809, felt that his administration was to be a continuation of that of Jefferson; and he took over three members of Jefferson's cabinet, including Gallatin. The Secretary of State, Robert Smith, was incapable, and Madison was practically his own foreign minister. [Sidenote: The situation abroad.] The condition of European affairs was, on the whole, favorable to America. In 1807 Russia had formed an alliance with F

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108. FRUITLESS NEGOTIATIONS (1809-1811).

108. FRUITLESS NEGOTIATIONS (1809-1811).

[Sidenote: The Erskine treaty.] On April 19, 1809, Madison obtained what seemed a diplomatic triumph; Erskine, the new British envoy, signed a formal agreement that the British government should withdraw the Orders in Council. A proclamation was then issued, announcing that trade might be renewed with Great Britain. As France had from the first protested that her Decrees were simply retaliatory, it was expected that they would in due time also be annulled. The satisfaction of the country was sho

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109. THE WAR PARTY (1811).

109. THE WAR PARTY (1811).

[Sidenote: Madison's first Congress.] The responsibility for peace or war was now thrown upon the Congress which assembled Nov. 4, 1811. It had been elected at a time when it was believed that France had at last withdrawn the Decrees, and it had a strong Republican majority in both branches; there were but six Federalists in the Senate, and thirty-seven in the House. Even Massachusetts had chosen a Republican senator. [Sidenote: The young Republicans.] The new Congress had little of the timid sp

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110. STRENGTH OF THE COMBATANTS (1812).

110. STRENGTH OF THE COMBATANTS (1812).

[Sidenote: Population.] [Sidenote: Financial resources.] In every respect except in the numbers available for land operations the Americans seemed inferior to the English. It was a war between a people of eight millions and a people of nearly twenty millions. The United States had been deceived by eleven years of great prosperity, and failed to see that the revenues of the government rose almost entirely from import duties, which would be cut off by war; and Congress showed a decided unwillingne

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111. WAR ON THE NORTHERN FRONTIER (1812, 1813).

111. WAR ON THE NORTHERN FRONTIER (1812, 1813).

[Sidenote: Campaign of 1812.] For the beginning of the campaign two expeditions were planned,—one across the river from Detroit, the other across the Niagara from Buffalo. The experience of the Revolution threw little light on the problem of conveying large bodies of men, with the necessary stores, across such stretches of wild country. General Hull, in command at Detroit, after a single effort to invade Canada, was forced back, and on Aug. 16, 1812, was brought to a disgraceful capitulation. Fo

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112. NAVAL WARFARE (1812-1815).

112. NAVAL WARFARE (1812-1815).

[Sidenote: The first cruise.] [Sidenote: English cruisers captured.] When the war broke out, the purpose of the administration was to keep the vessels of the United States navy in Port for harbor and coast defence. An order was sent to New York authorizing a brief preliminary cruise, and within one hour Commodore Rodgers, with the frigates "President", and "Congress", the ship "Hornet" and brig "Argus", had got to sea. Within two days the little squadron attacked the British frigate "Belvidera,"

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113. DISASTROUS CAMPAIGN OF 1814.

113. DISASTROUS CAMPAIGN OF 1814.

[Sidenote: The situation abroad.] Nothing but a total want of understanding of the conditions in Europe could have brought about the War of 1812. In 1811 the Continental System (§ 102) had broken down, because Russia would no longer cut off the trade in American ships. The result of this breach was Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812; his success would have totally excluded American commerce from the Baltic, and would probably have resulted in the overthrow of England. The Americans were assisti

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114. QUESTION OF THE MILITIA (1812-1814).

114. QUESTION OF THE MILITIA (1812-1814).

[Sidenote: New England disaffected.] As at New Orleans, so throughout the war, the greater part of the fighting was done by State militia hastily assembled, imperfectly disciplined, and serving only for short terms. From the beginning, however, the New England States had refused to furnish militia on the call of the general government. They did not interfere with volunteer recruiting, and Massachusetts alone supplied as many troops as came from Virginia and North and South Carolina; but they dec

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115. SECESSION MOVEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND (1814).

115. SECESSION MOVEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND (1814).

[Sidenote: Federalist successes.] [Sidenote: Opposition to the war.] More positive and more dangerous opposition had been urged in New England from the beginning of the war. Besides the sacrifice of men, Massachusetts furnished more money for the war than Virginia. In the elections of 1812 and 1813 the Federalists obtained control of every New England State government, and secured most of the New England members of Congress. The temper of this Federalist majority may be seen in a succession of a

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116. THE PEACE OF GHENT (1812-1814).

116. THE PEACE OF GHENT (1812-1814).

[Sidebar: Russian mediation.] [Sidebar: American commissioners sent.] Three months after the war broke out, the Russian government had offered mediation; it regretted to see the strength of the English allies wasted in a minor contest with America. Madison eagerly seized this opportunity, and on May 9, 1813, Gallatin and Bayard were sent as special commissioners. On arriving in Russia they found that the British government had refused the offer of mediation. The immediate effect was to take Gall

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117. POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR (1815).

117. POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR (1815).

[Sidenote: No gain from the war.] [Sidenote: National pride.] After nearly three years of war, the expenditure of one hundred millions of dollars, the loss of about thirty thousand lives, the destruction of property, and ruinous losses of American vessels, the country stood where it had stood in 1812, its boundary unchanged, its international rights still undefined, the people still divided. Yet peace brought a kind of national exaltation. The naval victories had been won by officers and men fro

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118. REFERENCES.

118. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—W. E. Foster, References to Presidential Administrations , 15-19; Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History_, VII. 344, 345, 437-439; J.F. Jameson, Bibliography of Monroe (Appendix to Oilman's Monroe ); Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 174-178. HISTORICAL MAPS.—Nos. 1 and 5, this volume, and No. 1, Wilson, Division and Reunion ( Epoch Maps Nos. 7, 8, and 10); Labberton, Atlas , lxvii.; T. MacCoun, Historical Geography, Scribner, Statistical Atlas , Plate 14. GENERAL ACCOUNTS.—H.

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119. CONDITIONS OF NATIONAL GROWTH (1815).

119. CONDITIONS OF NATIONAL GROWTH (1815).

[Sidenote: Prosperity.] The population of the United States at the end of the war was about eight million five hundred thousand, and it was increasing relatively faster in the South and West than near the seaboard. The return of peace seemed also a return of prosperity. Short crops abroad revived the demand for American cereals, so that the surplus accumulated during the war could be sold at fair prices, and the exports in 1816 ran up to $64,000,000. In 1815, American shipping recovered almost t

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120. THE SECOND UNITED STATES BANK (1816).

120. THE SECOND UNITED STATES BANK (1816).

[Sidenote: Banks and currency.] The first evidence of this change of feeling was a demand for the renewal of the bank which had been allowed to expire in 1811 (§ 110). The country had been thrown entirely upon banks chartered by the States; the pressure of the war had caused their suspension, and the currency and banking capital of the United States had thus been thrown into complete confusion. For example, the Farmers Exchange Bank of Gloucester, R. I., was started, with a capital of $3,000; ac

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121. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS (1806-1817).

121. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS (1806-1817).

[Sidenote: Local improvements.] [Sidenote: Cumberland road.] [Sidenote: Gallatin's scheme.] Side by side with the bank bill went a proposition for an entirely new application of the government funds. Up to this time internal improvements—roads, canals and river and harbor improvements—had been made by the States, so far as they were made at all. Virginia and Maryland had spent considerable sums in an attempt to make the Potomac navigable, and a few canals had been constructed by private capital,

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122. THE FIRST PROTECTIVE TARIFF (1816).

122. THE FIRST PROTECTIVE TARIFF (1816).

[Sidenote: Increase of duties.] [Sidenote: Jefferson's attitude.] The protection controversy had hardly appeared in Congress since the memorable debate of 1789 (Section 76). From time to time the duties had been slightly increased, and in 1799 a general administrative tariff act had been passed. The wars with the Barbary powers had necessitated a slight increase of the duties, known as the Mediterranean Fund, and this had been allowed to stand. Up to the doubling of the duties in 1812 the averag

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123. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825).

123. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825).

[Sidenote: Monroe's election.] [Sidenote: The cabinet.] The election of 1816 proved that the Federalists could no longer keep up a national organization. They were successful only in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware. On March 4, 1817, therefore, James Monroe took his seat as the President of a well-united people. Although he had been the friend and candidate of Randolph, he represented substantially the same principles as Jefferson and Madison. His cabinet was the ablest since Washington

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124. TERRITORIAL EXTENSION (1805-1819).

124. TERRITORIAL EXTENSION (1805-1819).

[Sidenote: Northern boundary.] [Sidenote: Oregon.] [Sidenote: Boundary treaty.] The administration inherited two serious boundary controversies, one with England, and another with Spain. Some progress had been made toward running the northeast boundary, till in 1818 the commissioners disagreed. The northwest boundary had now come to be more important. A few months before the annexation of Louisiana, Jefferson had sent an expedition to explore the country drained by the Columbia River, which had

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125. JUDICIAL DECISIONS (1812-1824).

125. JUDICIAL DECISIONS (1812-1824).

[Sidenote: New judges.] [Sidenote: Authority asserted.] Two departments of the federal government had now shown their belief that the United States was a nation which ought to exercise national powers How did it stand with the judiciary department? Of the judges of the Supreme Court appointed by Washington and Adams but two remained in office in 1817; but the new justices, as they were appointed, quietly accepted the constitutional principles laid down by Marshall, their Chief Justice and leader

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126. THE SLAVERY QUESTION REVIVED (1815-1820).

126. THE SLAVERY QUESTION REVIVED (1815-1820).

[Sidenote: Silent growth of slavery.] Out of this peace and concord suddenly sprang up, as Jefferson said, "like a fire-bell in the night," a question which had silently divided the Union, and threatened to dissolve it. It was the question of slavery. During the whole course of the Napoleonic wars the country had been occupied in the defence of its neutral trade; since 1815 it had been busy in reorganizing its commercial and political system. During this time, however, four new States had been a

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127. THE MISSOURI COMPROMISES (1818-1821),

127. THE MISSOURI COMPROMISES (1818-1821),

[Sidenote: Arkansas debate.] The first step in the great slavery contest was a bill introduced into the House in December, 1818, providing a territorial government for Arkansas. Taylor of New York proposed that slavery be prohibited in the Territory; McLane of Delaware suggested the "fixing of a line on the west of the Mississippi, north of which slavery should not be tolerated." The test vote on the exclusion of slavery was a tie, and Clay, as Speaker, cast his vote against it. The new Territor

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128. RELATIONS WITH THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES (1815-1823).

128. RELATIONS WITH THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES (1815-1823).

[Sidenote: The Spanish colonies.] [Sidenote: Revolutions.] While the attention of the country was absorbed by the Missouri struggle, a new question of diplomacy had arisen. In 1789 almost every part of the two American continents south of the United States, except Brazil, was subject to Spain. The American Revolution had given a shock to the principle of colonial government by European powers; the Spanish colonies refused to acknowledge the authority of the French usurpers in Spain, and in 1808

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129. THE MONROE DOCTRINE (1823).

129. THE MONROE DOCTRINE (1823).

[Sidenote: Monroe's message.] [Sidenote: Colonization clause.] [Sidenote: Intervention Clause.] John Quincy Adams had succeeded in bringing the President to the point where he was willing, in behalf of the nation, to make a protest against both these forms of interference in American affairs. When Congress met, in December, 1823, Monroe sent in a message embodying what is popularly called the Monroe Doctrine. He had taken the advice of Jefferson, who declared that one of the maxims of American p

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130. REFERENCES.

130. REFERENCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES.—W. E. Foster, References to Presidential Administrations , 20-22; Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History , VII. 346-348; Channing and Hart, Guide , §§ 179-180. HISTORICAL MAPS.—No. 5, this volume ( Epoch Maps , No 10); Scribner's Statistical Atlas , Plates 14, 15; school histories of Channing and Johnston. GENERAL ACCOUNTS.—H. Von Hoist, Constitutional History , I. 409-458; James Schouler, United States , III. 336-450; Geo. Tucker, United States , III. 409-515. SPECIAL HIS

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131. POLITICAL METHODS IN 1824.

131. POLITICAL METHODS IN 1824.

[Sidenote: Old statesmen gone.] The United States was in 1825 half a century old, and the primitive political methods of the early republic were disappearing. Most of the group of Revolutionary statesmen were dead; Jefferson and John Adams still survived, and honored each other by renewing their ancient friendship; on July 4, 1826, they too passed away. The stately traditions of the colonial period were gone: since the accession of Jefferson, the Presidents no longer rode in pomp to address Cong

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132. THE TARIFF OF 1824 (1816-1824).

132. THE TARIFF OF 1824 (1816-1824).

[Sidenote: Effect of the tariff.] An evidence of political uneasiness was the Tariff Act of May 22, 1824. The tariff of 1816 had not brought about the good that was expected of it: importations of foreign goods were indeed cut down from $129,000,000 in 1816 to $50,000,000 in 1823; but the balance of trade was still rather against the United States, and in 1819 there was a financial crisis. In 1820 an act to raise the duties passed the House, but was lost in the Senate by a single vote. Manufactu

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133. THE ELECTION OF 1824.

133. THE ELECTION OF 1824.

[Sidenote: Era of good feeling.] [Sidenote: Presidential candidates.] The ground was now cleared for the choice of a successor to Monroe. The Federalist organization had entirely disappeared, even in the New England States; all the candidates called themselves Republicans or Democrats,— the terms were considered synonymous,—and there was little difference in their political principles. The second administration of Monroe has been called the "Era of Good Feeling," because there was but one party;

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134. THE ELECTION OF 1825.

134. THE ELECTION OF 1825.

[Sidenote: Clay favors Adams.] Crawford's influence had now much declined, so that Clay and his friends held the balance of power between Jackson and Adams. On Jan. 8, 1825, Clay advised his friends to vote for Adams, who was in every way the more suitable candidate; he represented principles acceptable to the large majority of voters; he favored a tariff; he was an enthusiastic advocate of internal improvements; he desired to make the influence of the United States felt in South and Central Ame

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135. THE PANAMA CONGRESS (1825-1826).

135. THE PANAMA CONGRESS (1825-1826).

[Sidenote: Adam's cabinet.] The new President was handicapped from the beginning of his administration by his inability to make up a strong cabinet. Clay was eager and venturesome; the other members, except Wirt, were not men of great force. Adams manfully withstood the pressure put upon him to remove the adherents of Crawford and of Jackson in the public service; a high-minded and magnanimous man, he was determined that his administration should not depend upon the political services of office-

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136. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS (1817-1829).

136. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS (1817-1829).

[Sidenote: Monroe's veto.] The failure of the bonus bill in 1817 (Section 121) had only checked the progress of internal improvements. The Cumberland road had been slowly extended westward, and up to 1821 $1,800,000 had been appropriated for it; but on May 4, 1822, Monroe vetoed a bill for its preservation and repair. The technical objection was that tolls were to be charged; in fact, the veto was, like Madison's, a warning to Congress not to go too far. [Sidenote: First harbor bill.] [Sidenote:

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137. THE CREEK AND CHEROKEE QUESTIONS (1824-1829).

137. THE CREEK AND CHEROKEE QUESTIONS (1824-1829).

[Sidenote: Tribal governments.] [Sidenote: Difficulty with Georgia.] Another difficulty inherited by Adams's administration arose out of the promise of the United States in 1802 to remove the Indians from within the limits of Georgia as soon as possible. The two principal tribes were the Creeks and the Cherokees, both partially civilized and settled on permanent farms, and both enjoying by treaty with the United States a tribal government owing no allegiance to Georgia. On Feb. 12, 1825, a treat

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138. THE TARIFF OF ABOMINATIONS (1828).

138. THE TARIFF OF ABOMINATIONS (1828).

[Sidenote: Commercial treaties.] [Sidenote: Woollen bill.] In one respect Adams was successful; he negotiated almost as many commercial treaties as had been secured during the previous fifty years. Trade had sprung up with the Spanish American States. England had meanwhile begun to relax her system of protection, and encouraged manufactures by importing raw materials on very low duties; woollens were therefore so cheapened that they could again be sold in the United States in competition with Am

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139. ORGANIZED OPPOSITION TO ADAMS (1825-1829).

139. ORGANIZED OPPOSITION TO ADAMS (1825-1829).

It has been seen that on most of the great questions which arose in Adams's administration there was a division, not so much on principle, as between the friends and opponents of the President. The four years of his administration were really a long drawn Presidential campaign. The friends of Jackson sought in every possible way to make Adams odious in the public mind. [Sidenote: Executive patronage.] [Sidenote: Retrenchment.] One of the early evidences of this personal opposition was a report b

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140. THE TRIUMPH OF THE PEOPLE (1828).

140. THE TRIUMPH OF THE PEOPLE (1828).

[Sidenote: Adams's policy.] [Sidenote: New political forces.] John Quincy Adams's principles of government were not unlike those of his father: both believed in a brisk, energetic national administration, and in extending the influence and upholding the prestige of the United States among foreign powers. John Adams built ships; John Quincy Adams built roads and canals. Both Presidents were trained statesmen of the same school as their English and French contemporaries. The outer framework of gov

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