Popular Technology; Or, Professions And Trades. - free ebook by Edward Hazen

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Popular Technology; Or, Professions And Trades.

Edward Hazen

101 chapters

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101 chapters

PREFACE.

PREFACE.

The following work has been written for the use of schools and families, as well as for miscellaneous readers. It embraces a class of subjects in which every individual is deeply interested, and with which, as a mere philosophical inspector of the affairs of men, he should become acquainted. They, however, challenge attention by considerations of greater moment than mere curiosity; for, in the present age, a great proportion of mankind pursue some kind of business as means of subsistence or dist

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THE AGRICULTURIST.

THE AGRICULTURIST.

1. Agriculture embraces, in its broad application, whatever relates to the cultivation of the fields, with the view of producing food for man and those animals which he may have brought into a state of domestication. 2. If we carry our observations so far back as to reach the antediluvian history of the earth, we shall find, from the authority of Scripture, that the cultivation of the soil was the first employment of man, after his expulsion from the garden of Eden, when he was commanded to till

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THE HORTICULTURIST.

THE HORTICULTURIST.

1. The Creator of the Universe, having formed man from the dust of the ground, provided a magnificent garden for his residence, and commanded him "to dress it and to keep it:" but, having transgressed the commandment of his lawful Sovereign, he was driven from this delightful paradise, thenceforth to gain a subsistence from the earth at large, which had been cursed with barrenness, thorns, thistles, and briars. 2. Scripture does not inform us, that Adam turned his attention to gardening; nor hav

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THE MILLER.

THE MILLER.

1. The Miller belongs to that class of employments which relates to the preparation of food and drinks for man. His business consists, chiefly, in reducing the farinaceous grains to a suitable degree of fineness. 2. The simplest method by which grain can be reduced to meal, or flour, is rubbing or pounding it between two stones; and this was probably the one first practised in all primitive conditions of society, as it is still pursued among some tribes of uncivilized men. 3. The first machine f

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THE BAKER.

THE BAKER.

1. The business of the Baker consists in making bread, rolls, biscuits, and crackers, and in baking various kinds of provisions. 2. Man appears to be designed by nature, to eat all substances capable of affording nourishment to his system; but, being more inclined to vegetable than to animal food, he has, from the earliest times, used farinaceous grains, as his principal means of sustenance. As these, however, cannot be eaten in their native state without difficulty, means have been contrived fo

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THE CONFECTIONER.

THE CONFECTIONER.

1. The Confectioner makes liquid and dry confects, jellies, marmalades, pastes, conserves, sugar-plums, ice-creams, candies, and cakes of various kinds. 2. Many of the articles just enumerated, are prepared in families for domestic use; but, as their preparation requires skill and practice, and is likewise attended with some trouble, it is sometimes better to purchase them of the confectioner. 3. Liquid and dry confects are preserves made of various kinds of fruits and berries, the principal of

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THE BREWER.

THE BREWER.

1. Brewing is the art of preparing a liquor, which has received the general denomination of beer. This beverage can be brewed from any kind of farinaceous grain; but, on various accounts, barley is usually preferred. It is prepared for the brewer's use by converting it into malt, which is effected by the following process. 2. The grain is soaked in a cistern of water about two days, or until it is completely saturated with that fluid. It is then taken out, and spread upon a floor in a layer near

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THE DISTILLER.

THE DISTILLER.

1. Although alcohol can be extracted from any substance containing saccharine matter, yet sugar-cane, grapes, apples, peaches, rye, corn, and rice, on account of their abundance, and superior adaptation to the purpose, are more commonly used than any other. As whiskey is the chief article of this kind, manufactured in the United States, it will be selected to illustrate the general principles of distillation. 2. Corn and rye are the materials from which this liquor is mostly extracted; and these

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THE BUTCHER.

THE BUTCHER.

1. Man is designed by nature, to subsist on vegetable and animal food. This is obvious, from the structure of his organs of mastication and digestion. It does not follow, however, that animal food is, in all cases, positively required. In some countries, the mass of the people subsist chiefly or entirely on vegetables. This is especially the case in the East Indies, where rice and fruits are the chief articles of food. 2. On the other hand, the people who live in the higher latitudes subsist pri

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THE TOBACCO PLANTER.

THE TOBACCO PLANTER.

1. Tobacco is a native production of America, which was in common use among nearly all of the Indian tribes, when this continent was discovered by Europeans. Its original name among the nations of the islands, was yoli ; whilst, with those of the continent, it was termed petum . The Spaniards, however, chose to call it tobacco , a term in the Haytian language, which designated the instrument in which the herb was smoked. 2. This plant was first introduced into Spain, then into Portugal and Franc

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THE TOBACCONIST.

THE TOBACCONIST.

1. It is the business of the tobacconist to convert the leaves of the tobacco plant into snuff, cigars, and smoking and chewing tobacco. 2. Although there may seem to be a great variety of snuffs, yet they may be all reduced to three kinds, viz., Scotch, rappee, and maccouba. These are variously modified by the quality of the tobacco, by some little variation in the manufacture, and by the articles employed in communicating the desired flavour. 3. In manufacturing snuff, the tobacco is ground in

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THE SILK-WORM.

THE SILK-WORM.

1. Silk is the production of a worm, of the caterpillar species, which, in due course, passes through several transformations, and at length becomes a butterfly, like others of the genus. It is produced from an egg, and when about to die, or rather again to change its form, spins for itself an envelope, called a cocoon . The worm then changes to a chrysalis, and, after remaining in this state from 5 to 8 days, the butterfly, or moth, comes out, forcing its way through the cocoon. The moths, or b

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THE DYER.

THE DYER.

1. The art of dyeing consists in impregnating flexible fibres with any color which may be desired, in such a manner, that it will remain permanent, under the common exposures to which it may be liable. 2. The union of the coloring matter with the fibres receiving the dye, is purely chemical, and not mechanical, as in the case of the application of paints. Wool has the greatest attraction for coloring substances; silk comes next to it; then cotton; and, lastly, hemp and flax. These materials, als

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THE CALICO-PRINTER.

THE CALICO-PRINTER.

1. Calico-printing is a combination of the arts of dyeing, engraving, and printing, wherewith colors are applied in definite figures. This art is applicable to woven fabrics, and chiefly to those of which the material is cotton. 2. The first object, after preparing the stuffs, as in dyeing, is to apply a mordant to those parts of the piece which are to receive the color. This is now usually done by means of a steel or copper cylinder, on which have been engraved the proposed figures, as on plate

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THE HATTER.

THE HATTER.

1. The business, peculiar to the hatter, consists in making hats from the fur or hair of animals, by the process called felting . The hair of animals is the only material which can be firmly matted together in this way; yet, that of every animal is not suitable for this purpose. The fur of the beaver, the otter, the seal, the muskrat, the rabbit, the hare, the coney, and the nutria, together with the wool of the lama, sheep, and camel, are employed to the exclusion of almost every other. 2. The

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THE ROPE-MAKER.

THE ROPE-MAKER.

1. Ropes may be made of any vegetable substance which has a fibre sufficiently flexible and tenacious. The Chinese and other orientals, in making ropes, use the ligneous parts of certain bamboos and reeds, the fibrous covering of the cocoa-nut, the filaments of the cotton pod, and the leaves of certain grasses; but the bark of plants and trees, is the most productive of fibrous matter suitable to this manufacture. That of the linden-tree, the willow, and the bramble is frequently used. In Europe

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THE TAILOR.

THE TAILOR.

1. The business of the tailor consists, principally, in cutting out and making clothes for men and boys, together with habits and cloaks for ladies. It is usual for persons who carry on this business in cities and large towns, to keep a stock of cloths and other stuffs adapted to the season, which they make up into garments to the order of customers. In such cases, they are termed merchant tailors . 2. The operation, preparatory to cutting out the cloth for a garment, is that of taking the measu

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THE MILLINER.

THE MILLINER.

1. The milliner is one who manufactures and repairs bonnets and hats for ladies and children. Her business requires the use of pasteboard, wire, buckram, silks, satins, muslins, ribands, artificial flowers, spangles, and other materials too numerous to be mentioned. 2. The first part of the process of making a hat, or bonnet, consists in forming a crown of buckram; which operation is performed on a block of suitable size and shape; and to this is applied pasteboard, or buckram, edged with wire,

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THE LADY'S DRESS-MAKER.

THE LADY'S DRESS-MAKER.

1. This business is nearly allied to the foregoing, and is, therefore, often carried on in conjunction with it. This is especially the case in villages and small towns, where sufficient business cannot be obtained in the exclusive pursuit of one branch. 2. The customers of the lady's dress-maker are not always easily pleased, as they frequently expect more from her skill than it is possible to accomplish. She, however, can do much towards concealing the defects of nature; and, by padding and oth

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THE BARBER.

THE BARBER.

1. It is the business of the barber to cut and dress the hair, to make wigs and false curls, and to shave the beards of other men. In ancient times, he used also to trim the nails; and even at the present day, in Turkey, this is a part of his employment. 2. The period, when men began to shave their beards, is not certainly known. It appears that the practice was common among the Israelites in the time of Moses; as that legislator has left on record a prohibitory law concerning it. They probably

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THE TANNER.

THE TANNER.

1. The art of tanning consists in converting hides and skins into leather, by impregnating them with astringent matter. 2. It is impossible to determine the period at which the art of tanning was discovered. It was doubtless known to the ancients, and probably to the antediluvians, in some degree of perfection; since skins were applied as means of clothing the human body, before the arts of spinning and weaving were practised. It is likely, however, that they were applied to this purpose, for a

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THE CURRIER.

THE CURRIER.

1. It is the business of the currier to dress the thinner kinds of leather. In most cases, in the United States, except in and near large cities, the business of tanning and currying are usually united in the same individual; or, at least, the two branches of business are carried on together, by the aid of workmen, skilled in their respective trades. 2. The mode of dressing the different kinds of skins, varies in some respects; but, as the general method of operating is the same in every sort, a

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THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER.

THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER.

1. As the shoe is an article of primary utility, it was used, more or less, in the earliest ages. Some writers suppose, that the Deity, in clothing man with skins, did not leave him to go barefooted, but gave him shoes of the same material. 2. The shoes of the ancient Egyptians were made of the papyrus. The Chinese, as well as the inhabitants of India, and some other nations of antiquity, manufactured them from silk, rushes, linen, wood, the bark of trees, iron, brass, silver, and gold, and some

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THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER.

THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER.

1. The invention of the saddle has been attributed to the Selians, a people of ancient Franconia. Under this impression, it has been supposed that the Latins gave it the name of sella . The period at which it was first used, cannot be ascertained. It is certain, however, that the horse had been rendered subservient to man, several centuries before this convenient article was thought of. 2. At first, the rider sat upon the bare back of the animal, and guided him with a switch, but afterwards with

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THE TRUNK-MAKER.

THE TRUNK-MAKER.

1. The manufacture of trunks is equally simple with that of making harness. In common cases, it consists chiefly in lining the inside of a wooden box with paper, or some kind of cloth, and covering the outside with a skin, or with leather, which is fastened to the wood by means of tacks. Narrow strips of leather are fastened upon hair trunks with brass nails, by way of ornament, as well as to confine the work. 2. Instead of a wooden box, oblong rims of iron, and very thick, solid pasteboard, fas

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THE SOAP-BOILER.

THE SOAP-BOILER.

1. The business of the soap-boiler consists in manufacturing soap, by the combination of certain oily and alkaline substances. 2. The earliest notice of this useful article occurs in the works of Pliny, in which it is stated, that soap was composed of tallow and ashes; that the mode of combining them was discovered by the Gauls; but that the German soap was the best. 3. For many ages before the invention of soap, saponaceous plants, and several kinds of earth, together with animal matters and th

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THE CANDLE-MAKER.

THE CANDLE-MAKER.

1. The subject of the candle-maker's labors may be defined to be a wick, covered with tallow, wax, or spermaceti, in a cylindrical form, which serves, when lighted, for the illumination of objects in the absence of the sun. The business of candle-making is divided into two branches; the one is confined to the manufacturing of tallow candles, and the other, to making those composed of wax or spermaceti. 2. The process of making candles from tallow, as conducted by the tallow-chandler, needs only

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THE COMB-MAKER.

THE COMB-MAKER.

1. The comb is a well-known instrument, employed in cleansing, dressing, and confining the hair. It is made of various materials, but most commonly of tortoise-shell, the horns and hoofs of cattle, ivory, bone, and several kinds of hard wood. 2. It is impossible to determine the period of the world at which it was introduced, since history and tradition, the sources from which we obtain information of this nature, are silent with regard to its origin. It is evident, however, that the comb is an

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THE BRUSH-MAKER.

THE BRUSH-MAKER.

1. There are few manufactured articles in more general use than brushes. This has arisen from their great utility, and the low prices at which they can be purchased. The productions of the brush-maker's labor are denominated variously, according to the purposes to which they are to be applied. 2. The operations connected with this business are very simple, as there is scarcely a tool employed which is not familiar to every other class of mechanics. The brush-maker, however, does not manufacture

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THE TAVERN-KEEPER.

THE TAVERN-KEEPER.

1. A house in which travellers are entertained is denominated a tavern, inn, coffee-house, hotel, or house of public entertainment; and an individual who keeps a house of this description, is called an inn-keeper or tavern-keeper. Of these establishments there are various grades, from the log cabin with a single room, to the splendid and commodious edifice with more than a hundred chambers. 2. This business is one of great public utility; since, by this means, travellers obtain necessary refresh

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THE HUNTER.

THE HUNTER.

1. Hunting and fishing are usually considered the primary occupations of man; not because they were the first employments in which he engaged, but because they are the chief means of human sustenance among savage nations. 2. The great and rapid increase of the inferior animals, and, probably, the diminished fertility of the soil after the deluge, caused many branches of the family of Noah to forsake the arts of civilized life, especially after the dispersion caused by the confusion of tongues. 3

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THE FISHERMAN.

THE FISHERMAN.

1. Although permission was given by the Deity, immediately after the flood, to employ for human sustenance "every moving thing that liveth," yet it is not probable, that fishes were used as food, to any considerable extent, for several centuries afterwards. It is stated by Plutarch, that the Syrians and Greeks, in very ancient times, abstained from fish. Menelaus, one of Homer's heroes, complains, on a certain occasion, that his companions had been reduced by hunger to the necessity of eating fi

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THE SHIPWRIGHT.

THE SHIPWRIGHT.

1. The earliest notice we have of the construction of a building to float on water, is that which relates to Noah's Ark. This was the largest vessel that has ever been built, and the circumstance proves that the arts, at that early period, had been brought to considerable perfection; yet, as several centuries had elapsed, after the flood, before the descendants of Noah had much occasion for floating vessels, the art of constructing them seems to have been measurably lost. 2. Early records, which

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THE MARINER.

THE MARINER.

1. The business of the mariner consists in navigating ships and other vessels from one port to another. This is an employment that requires much decisive resolution; and Horace has well said, that "his breast must have been bound with oak and triple brass, who first committed his frail bark to the tempestuous sea." There is certainly nothing which speaks louder in praise of human ingenuity, than that art by which man is able to forsake the land, contend successfully with winds and waves, and rea

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THE MERCHANT.

THE MERCHANT.

1. The word merchant , in its most extended application, signifies, a person who deals in merchandise. This definition, with some exceptions, agrees very well with general usage in this country; although, in England, the term is principally restricted to those dealers who export and import goods on their own account, either in their own or in chartered vessels. In the United States, dealers of this class are denominated importing and exporting merchants; or simply, importers and exporters . 2. S

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THE AUCTIONEER.

THE AUCTIONEER.

1. The Auctioneer is one who disposes of property at public sale to the highest bidder. The sale of property in this manner is regulated, in some particulars, by legislative enactments, which have for their object the prevention of fraud, or the imposition of duties. 2. In Pennsylvania, the present law provides for three classes of auctioneers, each of which is required to pay to the state a specified sum for a license. The first class pays two thousand dollars per annum; the second, one thousan

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THE CLERGYMAN.

THE CLERGYMAN.

1. The Lord Jesus Christ, our Saviour, during his visit of mercy to the world, chose from among his disciples twelve men, to be his especial agents in establishing his church. These men, in our translation of the New Testament, are denominated apostles. The grand commission which they received was, "Go ye into all the world, and preach my gospel to every creature." 2. The apostles commenced their noble enterprise on that memorable day of Pentecost, which next occurred after the ascension of thei

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ATTORNEY AT LAW.

ATTORNEY AT LAW.

1. A lawyer is one who, by profession, transacts legal business for others, who, in this relation, are called clients . A lawyer is either an attorney or councillor, or both. The part of legal business, belonging peculiarly to the attorney, consists in preparing the details of the pleadings and the briefs for the use of the councillor, whose especial province it is to make the argument before the court. When the lawyer prepares his own case and makes the argument, as he generally does, he acts i

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THE PHYSICIAN.

THE PHYSICIAN.

1. Among the various avocations of men, that of the physician deserves to be placed in the foremost rank. The profession is founded in the multiplicity of diseases to which humanity is liable, and in the medical qualities of certain substances, which have been found to supply a remedy. 2. It is implied, though not expressly declared, in the Scriptures, that the diseases and other calamities pertaining to our earthly condition, originated in the fall of man from his pristine innocence; and the Gr

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THE CHEMIST.

THE CHEMIST.

1. This globe, and every thing appertaining to it, is composed of substances, which exist either in a compound or simple state. It is the object of the scientific chemist to investigate the properties of these substances, and to show their action upon each other. By this science, therefore, compound bodies are reduced to the simple elements of which they are composed, or new combinations formed. 2. According to the preceding definitions, chemistry comprehends an immense variety of objects. It is

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THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY.

THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY.

1. The druggist is a wholesale dealer in drugs, which, in commerce, embrace not only articles used or recommended by the medical profession, but also spices, dye-stuffs, and paints. The commodities of his trade are obtained from almost every quarter of the globe; but especially from the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea, and from the East Indies and Spanish America. 2. The chemist looks to the druggist for most of the materials employed in his laboratory; and from him the apothecary

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THE DENTIST.

THE DENTIST.

1. The human family is subject to a variety of diseases in the teeth, which generally cause the final destruction or loss of these important instruments, unless judicious remedies are applied in proper season. These remedies are administered by the dentist. 2. There are few persons, in proportion to the great mass of the people, who seem to be aware of the utility of dentistry; for, taking the United States together, not more than one person in a hundred ever resorts to the professors of this ar

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VOL. II.

VOL. II.

NEW YORK: HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. 1870. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by Harper &amp; Brothers , in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York....

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THE MUSICIAN.

THE MUSICIAN.

1. The word Music , in its modern application, has reference to the science which treats of the combination of sounds. It is founded upon the law of our nature, that every leading passion has its peculiar tone or note of expression understood by all human beings. Music, therefore, may be supposed to have been practised in the earliest ages; although it must have been a long time before it arose to the importance of a science. 2. According to the Mosaic records, Jubal, one of the descendants of C

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MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER.

1. This artist unites in his business some of the operations of the cabinet-maker, turner, and brazier. He also is dependent upon the wire-drawer, and the tanner and currier, for some of his materials. So great, however, is the number of musical instruments, and so different their nature and construction, that the business of making them is divided into several branches, all of which are never pursued, or carried on, by one person. But, without reference to the several divisions of this business

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THE SCULPTOR.

THE SCULPTOR.

1. Sculpture is one of the fine arts. In its most extended sense, it includes not only modelling figures in clay, wax, and plaster of Paris, and carving them in wood, stone, and marble, but also casting them in bronze, lead, or iron, as well as enchasing and engraving. 2. The productions of this art are known under various denominations, but the principal are statues , busts , and bas-reliefs . The first of these are entire representations of men or animals in full relief; the second are upper p

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THE PAINTER.

THE PAINTER.

1. Painting is the art of representing visible objects, by means of lines and colors, on a plane surface, so as to produce the appearance of relief. It is justly ranked among the highest of that class of arts denominated fine, or liberal; and its tendencies and powers being similar to those of poetry, it is considered an employment worthy of men of the most exalted rank. 2. The theory and practice of this ingenious and delightful art, are divided by its professors into five distinct branches,——

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THE WOOD ENGRAVER.

THE WOOD ENGRAVER.

1. The Chinese are said to have been the first who engraved figures or letters on wood, for the purpose of printing. The precise time at which they commenced the practice, is totally unknown; but a book printed by them in the tenth century, is now extant. It is thought by some antiquarians, that the Europeans derived the art from the Chinese, through the Venitians, who traded in that part of the world earlier than any other Europeans. 2. This opinion is somewhat probable, from the circumstance t

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THE COPPERPLATE ENGRAVER.

THE COPPERPLATE ENGRAVER.

1. The engravers on metallic surfaces are termed copperplate engravers, not because copper is the only metal on which they exert their skill, but because it is the one on which they usually operate. The plates are prepared for the artist by the coppersmith, by rubbing them with brickdust and charcoal, after having cut them of a proper size from sheets of copper. 2. The instruments employed by this artist are few and simple, the principal of which are, the graver , the dry-point , the scraper , a

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THE COPPERPLATE-PRINTER.

THE COPPERPLATE-PRINTER.

1. The copperplate-printer takes impressions on paper from engraved plates by means of a rolling press. This machine, together with some of the operations in its application, are well exhibited in the above picture. 2. The period at which the practice of printing from engraved plates commenced, cannot be ascertained with any degree of certainty. The Dutch, the Germans, and the Italians, contend for the honor of introducing it; but the weight of testimony seems to be in favor of the claims of the

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THE LITHOGRAPHER.

THE LITHOGRAPHER.

1. The word lithography is derived from two Greek words— lithos , a stone, and grapho , to write; and the art to which the term is applied has reference to the execution of letters, figures, and drawings, on stone, and taking from them fac-simile impressions. The art is founded on the property which stone possesses, of imbibing fluids by capillary attraction, and on the chemical repulsion which oil and water have for each other. 2. Every kind of calcareous stone is capable of being used for lith

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THE AUTHOR.

THE AUTHOR.

1. The word author, in a general sense, is used to express the originator or efficient cause of a thing; but, in the restricted sense in which it is applied in this article, it signifies the first writer of a book, or a writer in general. The indispensable qualifications to make a writer are—a talent for literary composition, an accurate knowledge of language, and an acquaintance with the subject to be treated. 2. Very few persons are educated with the view to their becoming authors. They genera

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THE PRINTER.

THE PRINTER.

1. From what has been said in a preceding article, it is manifest that the art of printing arose from the practice of engraving on wood. Letters were cut on wood as inscriptions to pictures, and were printed at the same time with them, by means of a hand-roller. The impressions were taken on one side of the paper; and, in order to hide the nakedness of the blank side, two leaves were pasted together. These leaves were put up in pamphlet form, and are now known under the denomination of block-boo

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THE TYPE-FOUNDER.

THE TYPE-FOUNDER.

1. The types cast by the type-founder are oblong square pieces of metal, each having, on one end of it, a letter or character, in relief. The metal of which these important instruments are composed, is commonly an alloy consisting principally of lead and antimony, in the proportion of about five parts of the former to one of the latter. This alloy melts at a low temperature, and receives and retains with accuracy the shape of the mould. Several hundred pounds of type-metal are prepared at a time

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THE STEREOTYPER.

THE STEREOTYPER.

1. The word stereotype is derived from two Greek words— stereos , solid, and tupos , a type. It is applied to pages of types in a single piece, which have been cast in moulds formed on common printing types or wood-cuts. They are composed of lead and antimony, in the proportion of about six parts of the former to one of the latter. Sometimes a little tin is added. 2. The types are set up by compositors , as usual in printing, and imposed , or locked up, one or several pages together, in an iron

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THE PAPER-MAKER.

THE PAPER-MAKER.

1. The materials on which writing was executed, in the early days of the art, were the leaves and bark of trees and plants, stones, bricks, sheets of lead, copper, and brass, as well as plates of ivory, wooden tablets, and cotton and linen cloth. 2. The instruments with which writing was practised were adapted to the substance on which it was to be formed. The stylus , which the Romans employed in writing on metallic tablets covered with wax, was made of iron, acute at one end, for forming the l

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THE BOOKBINDER.

THE BOOKBINDER.

1. Bookbinding is the art of arranging the pages of a book in proper order, and confining them there by means of thread, glue, paste, pasteboard, and leather. 2. This art is probably as ancient as that of writing books; for, whatever may have been the substance on which the work was executed, some method of uniting the parts was absolutely necessary. The earliest method with which we are acquainted, is that of gluing the sheets together, and rolling them upon small cylinders. This mode is still

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THE BOOKSELLER.

THE BOOKSELLER.

1. The book-trade has arisen from small beginnings to its present magnitude and importance. Before the invention of typography, it was carried on by the aid of transcribers; and the booksellers of Greece, Rome, and Alexandria, during the flourishing state of their literature, kept a large number of manuscript copyists in constant employ. Among the Romans, the transcribers or copyists were chiefly slaves, who were very valuable to their owners, on account of their capacity for this employment. 2.

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THE ARCHITECT.

THE ARCHITECT.

1. Architecture, in the general sense of the word, is the art of planning and erecting buildings of all kinds, whether of a public or private nature; and it embraces within its operations a variety of employments, at the head of which must be placed the Architect. Architecture is of several kinds, such as civil , naval , military , and aquatic ; but it is the first only that we propose to notice in the present article. 2. The construction of buildings as means of shelter from the weather, appear

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THE CARPENTER.

THE CARPENTER.

1. It is the business of the carpenter to cut out and frame large pieces of timber, and then to join them together, or fit them to brick or stone walls, to constitute them the outlines or skeleton of buildings or parts of buildings. 2. The joiner executes the more minute parts of the wood-work of edifices, comprehending, among other things, the floors, window-frames, sashes, doors, mantels, &amp;c. Carpentry and joinery, however, are so nearly allied to each other, that they are commonly pra

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THE MASON.

THE MASON.

1. The art of Masonry includes the sawing and cutting of stones into the various shapes required in the multiplied purposes of building, and in placing them in a proper manner in the walls and other parts of edifices. It is divided into two branches, one of which consists in bringing the stones to the desired form and polish, and the other, in laying them in mortar or cement. 2. The rocks most used in building in the United States, are marble, granite, greenstone, scienite, soap-stone, limestone

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THE STONE-MASON.

THE STONE-MASON.

1. In Philadelphia, and in many other cities not only in this country, but also in Europe, the stone-cutters set their own work ; and this practice has led to the habit of applying the term stone-mason to both stone-cutters and those who lay stone in mortar and cement. In New-York, however, as well as in some of the cities farther east, these two employments are kept more distinct. The stone-cutters in Philadelphia are sometimes denominated marble-masons. 2. But, in every city, there are persons

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THE BRICKMAKER.

THE BRICKMAKER.

1. Brick is a sort of artificial stone, made principally of argillaceous earths formed in moulds, dried in the sun, and burned with fire. 2. The earliest historical notice of bricks is found in the book of Genesis, where it is stated that the posterity of Noah undertook to build a city and a lofty tower of this material. Whether the bricks were really exposed to the action of fire, as the passage referred to seems to imply, or only dried in the sun, is an unsettled point. But Herodotus, who visi

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THE BRICKLAYER.

THE BRICKLAYER.

1. The particular business of the bricklayer is to lay bricks in mortar or some other cement, so as to form one solid body; but he frequently constructs the foundations of buildings in rough stones, and, in some cities, he sets hewn stone in the superstructure. In the country, plastering is likewise connected with this business. 2. Bricklaying consists in placing one brick upon another in mortar, chiefly in the construction of walls, chimneys, and ovens. In connecting these materials, especially

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THE PLASTERER.

THE PLASTERER.

1. In modern practice, plastering occurs in many departments of architecture. It is more particularly applied to the ceilings and interior walls of buildings, and also in rough-casting on their exterior. 2. In plastering the interior parts of buildings, three coatings of mortar are commonly applied in succession. The mortar for the first coat is composed of about twelve parts of sand, six of lime, and three of hair, with a sufficient quantity of water to bring it to the proper consistence; that

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THE SLATER.

THE SLATER.

1. Slate stone is valuable for the property of splitting in one direction, so as to afford fragments of a sufficient size and thinness to answer several purposes, but especially for covering houses and for writing slates. The best slates are those which are even and compact, and which absorb the least water. 2. The slates used in the United States, are obtained either from our own quarries, of which there are several, or from those of Wales, in the county of Caernarvonshire. The stone is quarrie

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THE HOUSE AND SIGN PAINTER.

THE HOUSE AND SIGN PAINTER.

1. The painting which is the subject of this article relates to forming letters and sometimes ornamental and significant figures on signs, as well as to the application of paints to houses and other structures, for the purpose of improving their appearance, and of preserving them from the influence of the atmosphere and other destructive agents. 2. The substances capable of being employed by the house and sign painter, comprise a great variety of articles, derived from the mineral, vegetable, an

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THE GLAZIER.

THE GLAZIER.

1. Glazing, as practised in this country, consists chiefly in setting panes of glass in window-sashes. In the performance of this operation, the glazier first fits the panes to the sash by cutting away, if necessary, a part of the latter with a chisel; he then fastens the glass slightly with little pieces of tin, which have been cut to a triangular shape; and, lastly, he applies putty at their junction with the sash, and by this means confines them firmly and permanently to their place. The putt

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THE TURNER.

THE TURNER.

1. Turning is a very useful art, by which a great variety of articles are almost exclusively manufactured. Besides this, it constitutes a considerable part of the operations of several trades and occupations, such as the chairmaker, machinist, cabinet-maker, brass-founder, &amp;c., since every substance of a solid nature can be submitted to the process. 2. Turning is performed in a lathe , an apparatus constructed in various ways, according to the particular purposes to which it is to be app

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THE CABINET-MAKER.

THE CABINET-MAKER.

1. It is the business of the cabinet-maker to manufacture particular kinds of household furniture, such as tables, stands, bureaus, sideboards, desks, book-cases, sofas, bedsteads, &amp;c., as well as a certain description of chairs made of mahogany and maple. Many of the operations of this business are similar to those of the carpenter and joiner, although they require to be conducted with greater nicety and exactness. 2. The qualifications of a finished cabinet-maker are numerous and of di

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THE UPHOLSTERER.

THE UPHOLSTERER.

1. The upholsterer makes beds, sacking-bottoms, mattresses, cushions, curtains for windows and beds, and cuts out, sews together, and fastens down, carpets. One branch of his business, also, consists in covering or lining and stuffing sofas, and particular kinds of chairs, the frames of which are made by cabinet-makers and fancy chair-makers. 2. Beds are stuffed with the feathers of geese and ducks. The sack which contains them, when in use, is called a tick , and the striped stuff of which it i

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THE CHAIR-MAKER.

THE CHAIR-MAKER.

1. The chair was invented at so early a period, that its origin cannot now be ascertained. It was used by all the civilized nations of antiquity; and some of their patterns for this species of furniture have been revived, with some modifications, in modern times; for example, a stool for sitting at the piano, now called the X, is the lower part of a chair used in the Roman empire near two thousand years ago. The seat and back were stuffed with some soft elastic substance. 2. The seats used by th

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THE CARVER.

THE CARVER.

1. Carving, in its widest sense, is the art of forming figures in various hard substances by means of some cutting instruments, such as a chisel or graver; but, in the restricted sense in which the term is generally applied, it has reference to the production of figures in wood. 2. Carving in wood, in all countries where it has been practised, has ever preceded sculpture, or carving in stone. It is, therefore, an art of the highest antiquity; and, although the same with sculpture in some of its

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THE GILDER.

THE GILDER.

1. Carving and gilding are, in most cases, ostensibly united as one business, although in fact they are branches of manufacture totally distinct. The gilder, therefore, who writes over his door, "Carver and Gilder," seldom has any practical knowledge of carving. For every thing in this line of work, he is dependent on the carver, who commonly pursues his business in a private way. 2. The operation of gilding, as performed by those whose business is now under consideration, is executed chiefly on

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THE COOPER.

THE COOPER.

1. The cooper manufactures casks, tubs, pails, and various other articles for domestic use, as well as vessels for containing all kinds of liquids and merchandise of a dry nature. He also applies hoops to boxes which are to be transported, with their valuable contents, to a distance from the cities. 2. The productions of this art being of prime necessity, the trade must have been exercised at a very early period. Roman writers on rural economy speak of the existence of its productions more than

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THE WHEELWRIGHT.

THE WHEELWRIGHT.

1. The artisan who makes the wood-work of common wheel carriages, or the wheels of coaches, is denominated a wheelwright; but, under this head, we propose to include whatever we may say on constructing and finishing wheel carriages in general. 2. It must be evident, even to a superficial observer, that this business, in its different branches, occupies a large space in our domestic industry, since almost every farmer in the country owns a vehicle of some sort, and since the streets of our busy c

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THE POTTER.

THE POTTER.

1. The artisan called the potter converts plastic materials into hard and brittle vessels of various kinds, denominated, in general terms, earthen ware . 2. Alumine is the basis of all clays, and is the only earth that possesses the degree of plasticity which renders the operations of the potter practicable. It is, however, never found or used in a pure state, but in combination with other substances, particularly with silex, lime, magnesia, and the oxyde of iron. 3. In the manufacture of vessel

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THE GLASS-BLOWER.

THE GLASS-BLOWER.

1. Glass is a substance produced from a combination of silicious earths with alkalies, and, in many cases, with metallic oxydes. The basis of every species of glass is silex, which is found in a state nearly pure in the sands of many situations. It is also found in the common flints and quartz pebbles. 2. When quartz pebbles or flints are employed, they must be first reduced to powder. This is done by grinding them in a mill, after they have been partially reduced, by heating them in the fire, a

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THE OPTICIAN.

THE OPTICIAN.

1. The word optician is applicable to persons who are particularly skilled in the science of vision, but especially to those who devote their attention to the manufacture of optical instruments, such as the spectacles, the camera obscura, the magic lantern, the telescope, the microscope, and the quadrant. 2. Light is an emanation from the sun and other luminous bodies, and is that substance which renders opaque bodies visible to the eye. It diverges in a direct line, unless interrupted by some o

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GOLD.

GOLD.

1. The metals most extensively employed in the arts are gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron. These are sometimes found uncombined with any other substance, or combined only with each other; in either of these cases, they are said to be in a native state . But they are more frequently found united with some substances which, in a great measure, disguise their metallic qualities, or, in other words, in a state of ore . The mode of separating the metals from their ores, will be noticed in con

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THE GOLD-BEATER.

THE GOLD-BEATER.

1. Gold, not being subject to intrinsic change by atmospheric action, or by that of common chemical agents, is extensively used in gilding various substances, either with the view of preserving them from decay, or for the purpose of embellishment. To prepare the gold for application in this manner is the business of the gold-beater. 2. The metal is first melted with some borax in a crucible, and formed into an ingot by pouring it into an iron mould. The mass is next hammered a little on an anvil

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THE JEWELLER.

THE JEWELLER.

1. The jeweller makes rings, lockets, bracelets, brooches, ear-rings, necklaces, watch-chains, and trinkets of like nature. The materials of the best quality of these ornaments are gold, pearls, and precious stones, although those of an inferior kind are often used. 2. There are several stones to which is applied the epithet precious , of which the following are the principal: the diamond, the ruby, the sapphire, the topaz, the chrysolite, the beryl, the emerald, the hyacinth, the amethyst, the

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SILVER.

SILVER.

1. Silver is a metal of a fine white color, and, in brilliancy, inferior to none of the metals except steel. In malleability, it is next to gold, it being capable of reduction into leaves not more than the ⅟ 160000 of an inch in thickness, and of being drawn into wire much finer than a human hair. 2. The relative value of silver and gold has varied considerably in different ages. In the prosperous period of ancient civilization, one pound of gold was worth twelve of silver. In Great Britain, the

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THE SILVERSMITH.

THE SILVERSMITH.

1. The artisan who forms certain articles of gold and silver, is called indifferently a goldsmith or a silversmith. The former denomination is most commonly employed in England, and the latter, in the United States. 2. The most common subjects of manufacture by the silversmith are cups, goblets, chalices, tankards, spoons, knives, forks, waiters, bread-trays, tea-pots, coffee-pots, cream-pots, sugar-bowls, sugar-tongs, and pencil-cases. Many of these articles he sometimes makes of gold; this is

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THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER.

THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER.

1. The great divisions of time, noted by uncivilized men, are those which are indicated by the changes of the moon, and the annual and diurnal revolutions of the earth; but the ingenuity of man was very early exercised in devising methods of measuring more minute periods of duration. 2. The earliest contrivance for effecting this object was the sun-dial. This instrument was known to the ancient Egyptians, Chaldeans, Chinese, and Bramins. It was likewise known to the Hebrews, at least as early as

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COPPER.

COPPER.

1. Copper is a ductile and malleable metal, of a pale yellowish red color. It is sometimes found in a native state, but not in great quantities. The copper of commerce is principally extracted from the ores called sulphurets. Copper mines are wrought in many countries; but those of Sweden are said to furnish the purest copper of commerce, although those of the island of Anglesea are said to be the richest. 2. In working sulphureted ore, it is first broken into pieces, and roasted with a moderate

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THE COPPERSMITH.

THE COPPERSMITH.

1. Copper, being easily wrought, is applied to many useful purposes. It is formed into sheets by heating it in a furnace, and compressing it between steel rollers. The operation of rolling it constitutes a distinct business, and is performed in mills erected for the express purpose. 2. The rolled sheets are purchased according to weight by the coppersmith, who employs them in sheathing the bottoms of ships, in covering the roofs of houses, and in constructing steam-boilers and stills. He also fa

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THE BUTTON-MAKER.

THE BUTTON-MAKER.

1. Trifling as the manufacture of buttons may appear, there are few which include a greater variety of operations. The number of substances of which they are made is very great, among which are gold, silver, various alloys of copper, steel, tin, glass, mother-of-pearl, bone, horn, and tortoise-shell, besides those which consist of moulds of wood or bone, covered with silk, mohair, or similar materials. 2. In making gilt buttons, the blanks , or bodies, are cut from rolled plates of brass, with a

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THE PIN-MAKER.

THE PIN-MAKER.

1. There is scarcely any commodity cheaper than pins, and none which passes through the hands of a greater number of workmen in the manufacture, twenty-five persons being successively employed upon the material, before it appears in these useful articles, ready for sale. 2. The wire having been reduced to the required size, is cut into pieces long enough to make six pins. These pieces are brought to a point at each end by holding them, a handful at a time, on a grindstone. This part of the opera

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TIN.

TIN.

1. Tin is a whitish metal, less elastic, and less sonorous than any other metal, except lead. It is found in the mountains which separate Gallicia from Portugal, and in the mountains between Saxony and Bohemia. It also occurs in the peninsula of Molucca, in India, Mexico, and Chili. But the mines of Cornwall and Devonshire, in England, are more productive than those of all other countries united. 2. There are two ores of tin, one of which is called tin stone , and the other tin pyrites ; the for

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THE TIN-PLATE WORKER.

THE TIN-PLATE WORKER.

1. The materials on which the tinner, or tin-plate worker, operates, are the rolled sheets of iron, coated with tin, as just described. He procures the sheets by the box, and applies them to the roofs and other parts of houses, or works them up into various utensils, such as pails, pans, bake-ovens, measures, cups, and ducts for conveying water from the roofs of houses. 2. In making the different articles, the sheets are cut into pieces of proper size, with a huge pair of shears, and these are b

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LEAD.

LEAD.

1. Next to iron, lead is the most extensively diffused, and the most abundant metal. It is found in various combinations in nature; but that mineralized by sulphur is the most abundant. This ore is denominated galena by the mineralogists, and is the kind from which nearly all the lead of commerce is extracted. 2. The ore having been powdered, and freed, as far as possible, from stony matter, is fused either in a blast or reverberatory furnace. In the smelting, lime is used as a flux, and this co

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IRON.

IRON.

1. The properties which iron possesses in its various forms, render it the most useful of all the metals. The toughness of malleable iron renders it applicable to purposes, where great strength is required, while its difficult fusibility, and property of softening by heat, so as to admit of forging and welding, cause it to be easily wrought. 2. Cast iron, from its cheapness, and from the facility with which its form may be changed, is made the material of numerous structures. Steel , which is th

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THE IRON-FOUNDER.

THE IRON-FOUNDER.

1. The appellation of founder is given to the superintendent of a blast-furnace, and likewise to those persons who make castings either of iron or any other metal. In every case, the term is qualified by a word prefixed, indicating the metal in which he operates, or the kind of castings which he may make; as brass -founder, iron -founder, or bell -founder. But whatsoever may be the material in which he operates, or the kind of castings which he may produce, his work is performed on the same gene

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THE BAR IRON MAKER.

THE BAR IRON MAKER.

1. Bar-iron is manufactured from pig-iron, from blooms , and directly from the ore; the process is consequently varied in conformity with the state of the material on which it is commenced. 2. In producing bar-iron from pigs, the latter are melted in a furnace similar to a smith's forge, with a sloping cavity ten or twelve inches below, where the blast-pipe is admitted. This hearth is filled with charcoal and dross, or scoria; and upon these is laid the metal and more coal. After the coal has be

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THE WIRE DRAWER.

THE WIRE DRAWER.

1. Iron is reduced to the form of wire by drawing rods of it through conical holes in a steel plate. To prepare the metal for the operation of drawing, it is subjected to the action of the hammer, or to that of rollers, until it has been reduced to a rod sufficiently small to be forced through the largest hole. The best wire is produced from rods formed by the method first mentioned. 2. Various machines are employed to overcome the resistance of the plate to the passage of the wire. In general,

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THE STEEL MANUFACTURER.

THE STEEL MANUFACTURER.

1. Steel is a compound of iron and carbon; and, as there are several methods by which the combination is produced, there are likewise several kinds of steel. The best steel is said to be made of Swedish or Russian bar-iron. 2. The most common method of forming steel is by the process of cementation . The operation is performed in a conical furnace, in which are two large cases or troughs, made of fire-brick, or good fire stone; and beneath these is a long grate. On the bottom of the cases is pla

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THE BLACKSMITH.

THE BLACKSMITH.

1. The blacksmith operates in wrought iron and steel, and, from these materials, he fabricates a great variety of articles, essential to domestic convenience, and to the arts generally. 2. This business is one of those trades essential in the rudest state of society. Even the American Indians are so sensible of its importance, that they cause to be inserted in the treaties which they make with the United States, an article stipulating for a blacksmith to be settled among them, and for a supply o

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THE NAILER.

THE NAILER.

1. Nail-making constitutes an extensive branch of the iron business, as vast quantities of nails are annually required by all civilized communities. They are divided into two classes, the names of which indicate the particular manner in which they are manufactured; viz., wrought nails and cut nails . 2. The former are usually forged on the anvil, and when a finished head is required, as is commonly the case, it is hammered on the larger end, after it has been inserted into a hole of an instrumen

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THE CUTLER.

THE CUTLER.

1. Under the head of cutlery, is comprehended a great variety of instruments designed for cutting and penetration, and the business of fabricating them is divided into a great number of branches. Some manufacture nothing but axes; others make plane-irons and chisels, augers, saws, or carvers' tools. Others, again, make smaller instruments, such as table-knives, forks, pen-knives, scissors, and razors. There are also cutlers who manufacture nothing but surgical instruments. 2. The coarser kinds o

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THE GUN-SMITH.

THE GUN-SMITH.

1. It is the business of the gun-smith to manufacture fire-arms of the smaller sorts; such as muskets, fowling-pieces, rifles, and pistols. 2. The principal parts of the instruments fabricated by this artificer, are the barrel, the stock, and the lock. In performing the operations connected with this business, great attention is paid to the division of labor, especially in large establishments, such as those belonging to the United States, at Springfield and Harper's Ferry; for example, one set

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