Architecture: $B Nineteenth And Twentieth Centuries - free ebook by Henry-Russell Hitchcock

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Architecture: $B Nineteenth And Twentieth Centuries

Henry-Russell Hitchcock

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration appeared in 1929. It was an early attempt to relate the newest architecture of the nineteen-twenties to that of the preceding century and a half. In the thirty years that followed I have studied, in varying degrees of detail, many aspects of the story of architecture in the last two hundred years, from the ‘Romantic’ gardens of the mid eighteenth century to Latin-American building of the mid twentieth. In the process debts of gratitude have a

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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The present edition is no drastic revision of the original one. Only a paragraph or two has been omitted or rewritten, and the one wholly new section is the Epilogue . However, very many corrections and additions have been made in detail, following suggestions made by reviewers and including facts supplied by others, notably John Jacobus, Robin Middleton, Pieter Singelenberg, John Harris, Fritz Novotny, Malcolm Quantrill, Carroll Meeks, and Kevin Dynan among a host of correspondents who have kin

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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The round numbers of chronology have no necessary significance historically. Centuries as cultural entities often begin and end decades before or after the hundred-year mark. The years around 1800, however, do provide a significant break in the history of architecture, not so much because of any major shift in style at that precise point as because the Napoleonic Wars caused a general hiatus in building production. The last major European style, the Baroque, had been all but dissolved away in mo

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CHAPTER 1 ROMANTIC CLASSICISM AROUND 1800

CHAPTER 1 ROMANTIC CLASSICISM AROUND 1800

Despite the drastically reduced production of the years just before and after 1800, between the outbreak of the French Revolution and the termination of Napoleon’s imperial career, there are prominent buildings in many countries that provide fine examples of Romantic Classicism in its early maturity; others, generally more modest in size, give evidence of the vitality of the Picturesque at this time. Since England and America were least directly affected by the French Revolution, however much th

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CHAPTER 2 THE DOCTRINE OF J.-N.-L. DURAND AND ITS APPLICATION IN NORTHERN EUROPE

CHAPTER 2 THE DOCTRINE OF J.-N.-L. DURAND AND ITS APPLICATION IN NORTHERN EUROPE

From the time of Louis XIV France had been unique in possessing a highly organized system of architectural education. Under the aegis of the Académie, students were prepared for professional practice in a way all but unknown elsewhere. To crown their formal training came the opportunity, determined by competition, for the ablest to spend several years of further study as pensionnaires in Rome. The revolutionary years of the 1790s disrupted temporarily the French pattern of architectural educatio

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CHAPTER 3 FRANCE AND THE REST OF THE CONTINENT

CHAPTER 3 FRANCE AND THE REST OF THE CONTINENT

Before considering English architecture in the years between Waterloo and the Great Exhibition, it will be well to turn to that of France. The drama of the supersession of a supposedly purely Classical school in painting by a purely Romantic one, the contrast between such giants as Ingres on the one hand and Delacroix on the other, cannot be matched in the tame course of French architecture in this period; only very rarely was the accomplishment of these great painters or of half a dozen others,

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CHAPTER 4 GREAT BRITAIN

CHAPTER 4 GREAT BRITAIN

In English terminology, the most productive period of Nash and Soane, the two greatest Romantic Classical architects of England, extending from 1810 down to the thirties, is loosely referred to as ‘Regency’, and the rest of the first half of the century as ‘Early Victorian’. Neither term has much more specific meaning in an international frame of reference than does ‘Restoration’ or ‘Louis Philippe’ in France, not to speak of ‘Biedermeier’, which is sometimes used for this period in Germany and

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CHAPTER 5 THE NEW WORLD

CHAPTER 5 THE NEW WORLD

In varying degree Romantic Classicism left its mark on all the major cities of Europe. Paris without the Napoleonic monuments that Louis Philippe brought to completion is inconceivable, while Karlsruhe, Munich, Petersburg, and Edinburgh owe most of their architectural interest to this period. In the New World, where the independence of the principal colonies of the European nations, British, Spanish, and Portuguese, was generally established in this period or just before it, one might expect tha

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CHAPTER 6 THE PICTURESQUE AND THE GOTHIC REVIVAL

CHAPTER 6 THE PICTURESQUE AND THE GOTHIC REVIVAL

The principal modern treatise on the Picturesque with a capital P, Christopher Hussey’s of 1927, is subtitled ‘Studies in a Point of View’. By the opening years of the nineteenth century the term had come to have a far more precise, if also a more complex, meaning than the adjective ‘picturesque’ as it is generally used today. But Hussey is perfectly correct: the Picturesque is no more a style than is the Sublime, it is a point of view. That point of view nevertheless influenced architecture [10

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CHAPTER 7 BUILDING WITH IRON AND GLASS: 1790-1855

CHAPTER 7 BUILDING WITH IRON AND GLASS: 1790-1855

Architectural history has many aspects. Ideas and theories, points of view and programmes can have real importance even when, as with the Picturesque and the earlier stages of the Gothic Revival, most of the buildings which derive from them or follow their prescriptions are lacking in individual distinction. Volume of production is also significant; the disproportion between the previous chapter and the four that precede it expresses fairly accurately the difference in the amount of building in

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CHAPTER 8 SECOND EMPIRE PARIS, UNITED ITALY, AND IMPERIAL-AND-ROYAL VIENNA

CHAPTER 8 SECOND EMPIRE PARIS, UNITED ITALY, AND IMPERIAL-AND-ROYAL VIENNA

Many historians, in despair, have merely labelled the period after 1850 ‘Eclectic’ as if earlier periods of architecture—and notably all the preceding hundred years since 1750—had not also been eclectic, although admittedly to a lesser degree. Within the eclecticism of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries there can readily be distinguished the two major stylistic divisions with which Part I has dealt separately (in Chapters 1 - 5 and in Chapter 6 , respectively). So also in the fif

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CHAPTER 9 SECOND EMPIRE AND COGNATE MODES ELSEWHERE

CHAPTER 9 SECOND EMPIRE AND COGNATE MODES ELSEWHERE

In the cities of Germany and of Northern Europe generally there were in this period no such comprehensive urbanistic developments as in Paris and Vienna. Some individual public monuments are, perhaps, not inferior to those that Napoleon III and Francis Joseph obtained from their architects; but these are rarely grouped into such coherent entities as the Marktplatz in Karlsruhe of the first quarter of the century or the Ludwigstrasse in Munich of the second quarter. The domestic building of the p

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CHAPTER 10 HIGH VICTORIAN GOTHIC IN ENGLAND

CHAPTER 10 HIGH VICTORIAN GOTHIC IN ENGLAND

By 1850 Neo-Gothic was accepted as a proper mode for churches throughout the western world. Only in England, however, had it become dominant for such use. Moreover, Gothic was a more than acceptable alternative there to Greek or Renaissance or Jacobethan design for many other sorts of buildings also. Only in the urban fields of commercial construction and of terrace-housing was its employment still very rare. On the Continent the nearest equivalent in popularity and ubiquity to the Victorian Got

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CHAPTER 11 LATER NEO-GOTHIC OUTSIDE ENGLAND

CHAPTER 11 LATER NEO-GOTHIC OUTSIDE ENGLAND

The High Victorian Gothic produced in the United States no such roster of distinguished—or at least prominent and highly characteristic—monuments as in Britain. The period of its florescence was much briefer, and few assured and sophisticated talents came to the fore. If, in the case of Richardson, one such did appear, his maturity came only in the mid seventies, when the High Victorian Gothic was all but over. Why the period was so much shorter in the United States, in effect only the decade 18

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CHAPTER 12 NORMAN SHAW AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES

CHAPTER 12 NORMAN SHAW AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES

In England and America there followed immediately upon the ‘High Styles’ of the fifties and sixties phases of stylistic development that cannot readily be matched in the other countries of the western world. This is true both of the quality of the achievement and also of its significance for what came after. Beginning just before 1870 in England and but little later in the United States, these two phases developed in far from identical ways. In both cases their conventional names, ‘Queen Anne’ a

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CHAPTER 13 H. H. RICHARDSON AND McKIM, MEAD & WHITE

CHAPTER 13 H. H. RICHARDSON AND McKIM, MEAD & WHITE

The story of Shaw’s career is a fascinating one, far more interesting in fact than the general history of English architecture in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. It was a success-drama in four or five acts, of which the last was by no means the least brilliant. Richardson’s career was less eventful, even though, at its peak in the mid eighties, it was at least as successful as Shaw’s. It was also incomplete, since death brought his production to an end at that peak when he was only f

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CHAPTER 14 THE RISE OF COMMERCIAL ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA

CHAPTER 14 THE RISE OF COMMERCIAL ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA

The line of technical development which runs from the cast-iron-framed textile mills of the 1790s in England to the steel-framed skyscrapers of the 1890s in America seems to posterity a simple and obvious one. But, in fact, various lags and cul-de-sacs make the story long and complex. The most significant technical advances in iron construction of the first half of the century were not in the commercial field, and the account in this chapter is by no means merely a repetition and a continuation

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CHAPTER 15 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETACHED HOUSE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA FROM 1800 TO 1900

CHAPTER 15 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETACHED HOUSE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA FROM 1800 TO 1900

In the long story of man’s dwellings from prehistory to the present, the Anglo-American development that took place in the hundred years between the 1790s and the 1890s is of considerable significance, particularly as it provides the immediate background of the twentieth-century house. Architectural history has generally been little concerned, in dealing with periods earlier than the eighteenth century at least, with the habitations of any but the upper classes. The study of rural cottages in va

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CHAPTER 16 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ART NOUVEAU: VICTOR HORTA

CHAPTER 16 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ART NOUVEAU: VICTOR HORTA

The two preceding chapters, in entering the nineties, crossed what is perhaps the major historical frontier within the century and a half covered by this book. The skyscrapers of Sullivan and the early houses of Wright and Voysey—despite Voysey’s own disavowal of modernism—are among the first major manifestations of the period of architectural history that extends down to and includes our own time. The contemporaries of these men who were the new leaders on the Continent in the nineties had as s

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CHAPTER 17 THE SPREAD OF THE ART NOUVEAU: THE WORK OF C. R. MACKINTOSH AND ANTONI GAUDÍ

CHAPTER 17 THE SPREAD OF THE ART NOUVEAU: THE WORK OF C. R. MACKINTOSH AND ANTONI GAUDÍ

The initiation of the Art Nouveau by Horta in 1892 was sudden and its spread extremely rapid. Almost concurrently forms very similar to those he had invented began to appear in other European countries. Rarely has a new idea in the visual arts been taken up internationally with so little lag. Advanced artistic circles at this time were evidently thoroughly prepared to accept major innovations and new periodicals, starting up almost one a year, provided vehicles for their transmission: Pan in 189

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CHAPTER 18 MODERN ARCHITECTS OF THE FIRST GENERATION IN FRANCE: AUGUSTE PERRET AND TONY GARNIER

CHAPTER 18 MODERN ARCHITECTS OF THE FIRST GENERATION IN FRANCE: AUGUSTE PERRET AND TONY GARNIER

No better name than ‘modern’ has yet been found for what has come to be the characteristic architecture of the twentieth century throughout the western world, well beyond its confines also in Japan, India, and Africa, and increasingly in most of the Communist countries. Alternative adjectives such as ‘rational’, ‘functional’, ‘international’, or ‘organic’ all have the disadvantage of being either vaguer or more tendentious. Whether the Art Nouveau or such things as Sullivan’s skyscrapers and Voy

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CHAPTER 19 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT AND HIS CALIFORNIA CONTEMPORARIES

CHAPTER 19 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT AND HIS CALIFORNIA CONTEMPORARIES

Wright in America found himself, in his seventies, as generally accepted a master as did Perret in France, but his influence never became at all academic in the way of Perret’s after 1930. There could hardly be a greater contrast between the careers of two contemporaries in the same field. Both were very productive over a length of time that is more than a third of the whole period covered by this book, but this is about all that they did have in common. Perret’s career progressed gradually over

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CHAPTER 20 PETER BEHRENS AND OTHER GERMAN ARCHITECTS

CHAPTER 20 PETER BEHRENS AND OTHER GERMAN ARCHITECTS

The pattern of architectural development in Germany in the early decades of this century was rather different from that in either France or the United States. No academy, native or foreign, no influences from the École des Beaux-Arts discouraged innovation; yet there was an early and general reaction against the whimsicality and the decorative excesses of the Art Nouveau at which most of the younger men had tried their hands before 1900. After the First World War, however, the example of Express

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CHAPTER 21 THE FIRST GENERATION IN AUSTRIA, HOLLAND, AND SCANDINAVIA

CHAPTER 21 THE FIRST GENERATION IN AUSTRIA, HOLLAND, AND SCANDINAVIA

The development of modern architecture in Austria between 1900 and the Nazi conquest has many connexions with that of Germany. The Austrian Olbrich had as much as anyone to do with setting off the reaction against the Art Nouveau in Germany after 1900. From the mid twenties, Behrens was living in Austria, not in Germany. Even so, and particularly for the years before the First World War, there is a separate and purely Austrian story, more limited than the German story yet at least equally notabl

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CHAPTER 22 THE EARLY WORK OF THE SECOND GENERATION: WALTER GROPIUS, LE CORBUSIER, MIES VAN DER ROHE, AND THE DUTCH

CHAPTER 22 THE EARLY WORK OF THE SECOND GENERATION: WALTER GROPIUS, LE CORBUSIER, MIES VAN DER ROHE, AND THE DUTCH

The project that Gropius and Meyer offered in the competition of 1922 for the Chicago Tribune Tower, unlike Saarinen’s, attracted very little contemporary attention in America (Plate 158 A ). Such a stripped expression of skeleton construction had, up to that time in America, been seen only in factories and warehouses. Even in Chicago, moreover, the New York ideal of the shaped tower had quite replaced the Sullivanian slab as the favourite form for pretentious skyscrapers. Ten years later, howev

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CHAPTER 23 LATER WORK OF THE LEADERS OF THE SECOND GENERATION

CHAPTER 23 LATER WORK OF THE LEADERS OF THE SECOND GENERATION

Historians , whether of politics or the arts, should ideally stand at some distance from their subjects thanks to remoteness in time; in lieu of that, remoteness in space sometimes serves the same purpose. However, this historian has now reached the point at which he entered the scene; he must write, as statesmen who write history are often forced to do, of events concerning which he has first-hand knowledge—and hence, alas, first-hand prejudices. Architects, the real actors in architectural his

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CHAPTER 24 ARCHITECTURE CALLED TRADITIONAL IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

CHAPTER 24 ARCHITECTURE CALLED TRADITIONAL IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Through at least the first three decades of the twentieth century most architects of the western world would have scorned the appellation ‘modern’ or, if they accepted it, would have defined the term very differently from the way it has been understood in the immediately preceding chapters. For twentieth-century architecture that continued the historicism [511] of the nineteenth century the usual name in English is ‘traditional’. This term reflects a fond presumption that such architecture deriv

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CHAPTER 25 ARCHITECTURE AT THE MID CENTURY

CHAPTER 25 ARCHITECTURE AT THE MID CENTURY

To describe the state of architecture in the late forties and early fifties, before and after the mid-point of this century, is far more difficult than to sketch its condition a hundred and fifty years earlier, as the first chapter of this book attempted. The western world was enormously larger in geographical extent, vastly more populous, and as a result very much more productive of buildings of all types and at all levels of quality. Many of the types most important in the twentieth century—bi

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EPILOGUE

EPILOGUE

The five years since the original edition of this book appeared have seen a building boom throughout the western world such as has rarely been equalled in other post-war periods; nor has this boom been confined to those countries of Europe and the Americas with which this account has chiefly been concerned. These have also been years of continuing—indeed increasing—uncertainty in architectural doctrine. As might have been expected, various tendencies already touched on in the preceding chapter—b

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INTRODUCTION - Notes

INTRODUCTION - Notes

1 . Sigfried Giedion introduced this term in his Spätbarocker und romantischer Klassizismus in 1922 and provided an extended discussion of the concept. Fiske Kimball first used the term in English in his article ‘Romantic Classicism in Architecture’, Gazette des Beaux-Arts , XXV (1944), 95-112. 2 . See Hautecœur, L., Rome et la renaissance de l’antiquité à la fin du XVIII e siècle , Paris, 1912. However, the deeper background of theory was French, not Roman. Unhappily the brevity with which

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CHAPTER 1 - Notes

CHAPTER 1 - Notes

17 . See Steel, H. R., and Yerbury, F. R., The Old Bank of England , London, 1930, for photographic coverage of this monument of which the interiors were largely destroyed in the 1920s, and even the exterior considerably—and unnecessarily—modified (see Chapter 24 ). 18 . See Britton, J., Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey , London, 1823; Rutter, J., An Illustrated History and Description of Fonthill Abbey , Shaftesbury, 1823; and Storer, J., A Description of Fonthill Abbey , Wiltshire, London,

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CHAPTER 2 - Notes

CHAPTER 2 - Notes

38 . Allais and others, Projets d’architecture ... qui ont mérités les grands prix , Paris, 1806, and at different dates subsequently with varying authors and titles. For a collection of earlier projects, see Rosenau, H., ‘The Engravings of the Grand Prix of the French Academy of Architecture’, Architectural History , III (1960), 17-180, since the original publication is very rare. 39 . Durand was already well known as the compiler of the Recueil et parallèle des édifices en tout genre, anci

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CHAPTER 3 - Notes

CHAPTER 3 - Notes

61 . The idea for the two-towered façade is probably derived from a project of 1809 by Lebas, but could also come from Gisors’s Saint-Vincent in Mâcon of 1810. 62 . Three pieces only of the enamelled lava decoration were put in place; owing to the ensuing outcry they were soon removed. 63 . Hittorff and other architects of his generation such as Henri Labrouste and Duban, who supported his proposal to revive the external polychromy they had noted on the Classical temples of Sicily, were cl

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CHAPTER 4 - Notes

CHAPTER 4 - Notes

72 . Many additions and changes in the house were made from 1816 on; a top storey and a Picture Room of 1825-6 behind No. 14 were the most consequential. See Soane, J., Description of the House and Museum on the North Side of Lincoln’s Inn Fields , London, 1832; enl. ed., 1835-6. 73 . See Note [17] , Chapter 1 . The new interiors were built in 1818; the front and side façades were rebuilt in 1823. 74 . St Pancras is really based on Gibbs’s St Martin’s-in-the-Fields as regards the exterior;

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CHAPTER 5 - Notes

CHAPTER 5 - Notes

83 . When railway stations were needed in Brazil after the mid century they were actually imported, in prefabricated iron, from England. 84 . See Haviland, J. A Description of Haviland’s Design for the New Penitentiary ... , Philadelphia, 1824; Anon., A Description of the Eastern Penitentiary ... , Philadelphia, 1830; Crawford, W., Report on the Penitentiaries of the United States , London, 1834; Demetz, F.-A., and Blouet, A.-G., Rapport sur les penitenciers des États Unis , Paris, 1837; and

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CHAPTER 6 - Notes

CHAPTER 6 - Notes

106 . Hussey devotes only a portion of his book to the Picturesque in architecture. See also Pevsner, N., ‘The Picturesque in Architecture’, Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects , LV (1947), 55-61. C. L. V. Meeks in ‘Picturesque Eclecticism’, Art Bulletin , XXXII (1950), 226-35, extends the range of the Picturesque to include considerably more of nineteenth-century architecture than is usual. As with ‘Romantic’ or ‘Classical’, it makes a difference whether or not one uses a cap

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CHAPTER 7 - Notes

CHAPTER 7 - Notes

147 . See Sheppard, R., Cast Iron in Building , London, 1945, and Gloag, J. and Bridgwater, D., A History of Cast Iron in Building , London, 1948. These accounts require considerable revision in the light of later research by T. C. Bannister and by A. W. Skempton. See Note [151] , infra , and for further illustrations, ‘The Iron Pioneers’, Architectural Review , CXXX (1961), 14-19, and Richards, J. M., The Functional Tradition in Early Industrial Buildings , London, 1958. 148 . Problems of f

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CHAPTER 8 - Notes

CHAPTER 8 - Notes

179 . A notably extreme early example is Visconti’s Fontaine Molière of 1841-4 in the Rue de Richelieu in Paris. 180 . Here Visconti’s taste also proves to have been premonitory. His project of 1833 for a library already had a bulbous roof over the central pavilion; while that of 1849 for the Bibliothèque Nationale in the Rue de Richelieu had bold engaged orders on the central pavilion and a tall straight-sided mansard as well. 181 . See Hitchcock, H.-R., ‘Second Empire “avant la lettre”’,

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CHAPTER 9 - Notes

CHAPTER 9 - Notes

205 . See Kreisel, H., The Castles of Ludwig II of Bavaria , Darmstadt [n.d.] and Schloss Linderhof , Munich, 1959. 206 . The design derives from the results of a competition held in 1876. Of the nine architects involved in the execution of the building, Grotjan, Lamprecht, Robertson, and Martin Haller (1835-1925) had won prizes in the competition. The tower is attributed specifically to the last and sometimes, more loosely, the whole structure. 207 . It should be pointed out that tall man

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CHAPTER 10 - Notes

CHAPTER 10 - Notes

219 . Despite the ‘correctness’ of Butterfield’s detailing, an idiosyncratic coarsening can be noted at St Augustine’s College in Canterbury and in other work by him done several years before All Saints’; yet, by contrast to other aspects of his mature style, his moulded detail remained conventional. 220 . Since building Christ Church, Streatham, at the opening of the decade, Wild had been busy in Egypt. His curious St Mark’s, Alexandria, as Saracenic as his detractors accused the Streatham

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CHAPTER 11 - Notes

CHAPTER 11 - Notes

235 . At the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia the larger pavilions were all of iron and glass; and probably the most influential buildings were the British ones designed by Thomas Harris—no longer a wild ‘Victorian’—in a mode closely approaching Norman Shaw’s ‘Manorial’ mode (see Chapter 12 ). However, the exhibition stimulated the publication of several books on the Colonial architecture of Philadelphia which played their part in preparing the way for a ‘Colonial Revival’ (see Chapters 1

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CHAPTER 12 - Notes

CHAPTER 12 - Notes

261 . Many serious and conscientious English students of this period would precede such a list with the name of George Devey (1820-86). Of Devey, in whose office C. F. A. Voysey, the most original English architect of the next generation, chose to work after completing his apprenticeship with Seddon, Voysey later wrote: ‘Providentially an invitation came to enter the Office of the most extensive practitioner in homes for the Nobility and Gentry. No domestic practice has equalled his in extent

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CHAPTER 13 - Notes

CHAPTER 13 - Notes

277 . See Webster, J. C., ‘Richardson’s American Express Building’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians , IX (1950), 21-4, and my article cited in Note 7 to Chapter 11 . 278 . See Richardson, H. H., Trinity Church, Boston , Boston, 1888. 279 . 3 vols, Paris, 1868-73. It will be noted that the last volume of this appeared after the original competition drawings for Trinity Church were prepared. 280 . The source was probably the book by Vogüé of which the second volume appea

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CHAPTER 14 - Notes

CHAPTER 14 - Notes

295 . See Note [97] , Chapter 5 . 296 . Somewhat fuller accounts of English commercial architecture in this period will be found in Hitchcock, ‘Victorian Monuments of Commerce’, Architectural Review , CV (1949), 61-74, and in Hitchcock, Early Victorian Architecture , Chapters XI and XII. Most of the English buildings mentioned in this chapter are illustrated either in the book or the article. 297 . See Weisman, W., ‘Commercial Palaces of New York’, Journal of the Society of Architectural H

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CHAPTER 15 - Notes

CHAPTER 15 - Notes

323 . See Note [107] , Chapter 6 324 . For a remarkable later development of the veranda outside England, see Robertson, E. G., ‘The Australian Verandah’, Architectural Review , CXXVII (1960), 238-45. 325 . There are many examples in various English books of the first third of the century; characteristic are those offered by T. F. Hunt, J. B. Papworth, and P. F. Robinson. See Note [134] to Chapter 6 . 326 . See Note [132] , Chapter 6 . 327 . See Note [128] , Chapter 6 . 328 . See Not

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CHAPTER 16 - Notes

CHAPTER 16 - Notes

357 . See Madsen’s Sources of Art Nouveau , 75-83. 358 . See Schmutzler, R., ‘English Origins of the Art Nouveau’, Architectural Review , CXVII (1955), 108-16. The question is discussed further at a later point in this chapter (pp. 284-5). 359 . See Note [149] , Chapter 7 . 360 . The one large structure built for this exhibition in permanent form, the Palais du Trocadéro by Davioud, has since been replaced. Vaguely Saracenic in design, yet not altogether unworthy in silhouette of its spl

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CHAPTER 17 - Notes

CHAPTER 17 - Notes

381 . See Malton, J., ‘Art Nouveau in Essex’, Architectural Review , CXXVI (1959), 100-4. For a considerably earlier and more extraordinary example of English work approaching the Art Nouveau, see Beazley, E., ‘Watts Chapel’, Architectural Review , CXXX (1961), 166-72. This chapel at Compton, Surrey, was designed in 1896 by Mary Watts, the widow of the painter G. F. Watts. The inspiration seems to have been predominantly Norse and Celtic. 382 . See Gout, P., L’Architecture au XX e siècle et

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CHAPTER 18 - Notes

CHAPTER 18 - Notes

396 . See Concrete and Constructional Engineering , II (January 1956), special anniversary number reviewing the history of concrete. More important later studies are: Raafat, A. A., Reinforced Concrete in Architecture , New York [1958]; and Collins, P., Concrete, The Vision of a New Architecture , New York [1959]. See also Kramer, E. W., and Raafat, A. A., ‘The Ward House, Pioneer Structure of Reinforced Concrete’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians , XX (1961), 34-7. 397 . S

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CHAPTER 19 - Notes

CHAPTER 19 - Notes

408 . See Zevi, B., Verso un’architettura organica , Turin, 1945; English translation, Towards an Organic Architecture , London, 1950. 409 . See Pellegrini, L., ‘La decorazione funzionale del primo Wright’, L’Architettura (1956), 198-203. 410 . Wright’s ‘Baroque’ period, running for approximately ten years from 1914 to 1924, parallels the Expressionist episode in European modern architecture (see Chapters 21 and 22 ). That may be considered to open with van der Meij’s Scheepvaarthuis of 19

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CHAPTER 20 - Notes

CHAPTER 20 - Notes

422 . Reviving interest in Expressionism has already led to considerable significant publication. See, for example, Dorfles, G., Barocco nell’architettura moderna , Milan, 1951, especially the second part; Gregotti, G., ‘L’Architettura del’Espressionismo’, Casabella , August 1961, [260] -48; Conrads, U., and Sperlich, H. G., Phantastische Architektur , Stuttgart, [1960]; and, for a particularly significant figure, Joedicke, J., ‘Haering at Garkau’, Architectural Review , CXXVII (1960), 313-18.

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CHAPTER 21 - Notes

CHAPTER 21 - Notes

433 . The use of aluminium in architecture became widespread only some forty years later, it should be noted, although it had supplied the cap of the pyramid with which T. L. Casey finally completed the Washington Monument as early as 1884—its first use in architecture. In the nineties Thomas Harris already foresaw its great importance in building; see his Three Periods of English Architecture , London, 1894. 434 . See ‘Ornament und Verbrechen’ in Loos, A., Trotzdem: Gesammelte Aufsätze 1900

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CHAPTER 22 - Notes

CHAPTER 22 - Notes

443 . That is, Barr proposed the title The International Style for the book prepared by myself and Philip Johnson to go with this Exhibition, drawing the word ‘international’ from the title of Gropius’s Internationale Architektur . For various reasons the name ‘International Style’ has often been castigated since 1932; yet it is still recurrently used, with or without apology, by many critics. The term is, for example, used in English and in a rather unflattering sense by Gillo Dorfles in L’ A

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CHAPTER 23 - Notes

CHAPTER 23 - Notes

486 . See Note [443] , Chapter 22 . 487 . Le Corbusier’s moulded pilotis supporting the Swiss Hostel in Paris (Plate 165 B ) are two years later; those under the Unité d’Habitation, which resemble Aalto’s much more closely, were designed after the Second World War. 488 . A hospital built in 1926-8 by Adolf Schneck and Richard Döcker (b. 1894) in Stuttgart is actually earlier but hardly comparable in quality. 489 . For Howe’s earlier ‘traditional’ work see Monograph of the Work of Mellor,

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CHAPTER 24 - Notes

CHAPTER 24 - Notes

511 . ‘Historicism’ is a clumsy term matched by no viable adjective. It does, however, express more accurately than ‘traditionalism’, ‘revivalism’, or ‘eclecticism’ a certain aspect of architecture which was common throughout the last five hundred years, and not unknown in early ages. Quite simply, it means the re-use of forms borrowed from the architectural styles of the past, usually in more or less new combinations. It is late in this book to introduce a definition; but historicism is alway

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CHAPTER 25 - Notes

CHAPTER 25 - Notes

534 . No sharp distinction has been made in this book between architects and engineers. Such engineers, from Telford to Candela, as have been responsible for work of architectural pretension deserve to be considered as architects, and monographic works on several of them will be found in the Bibliography. 535 . See San Francisco Museum of Art, Domestic Architecture of the San Francisco Bay Region , San Francisco, 1949. 536 . See Banham, P. R., ‘New Brutalism’, Architectural Review , CXVIII

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GENERAL WORKS

GENERAL WORKS

Benevolo, L. Storia dell’architettura moderna , 1 . Bari, 1960. Cassou, J. , Langui, E. , and Pevsner, N. The Sources of Modern Art. London, 1962. (In America, Gateway to the Twentieth Century , New York, 1962.) Fergusson, J. History of the Modern Styles of Architecture. London, 1862. Giedion, S. Space, Time and Architecture. Cambridge, Mass., 1941. Later editions to 1954. Giedion, S. Spätbarocker und romantischer Klassizismus. Munich, 1922. Hamlin, A. D. F. A Text-Book of the History of Archite

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INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES

INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES

Dehio, G. Handbuch der deutschen Kunstdenkmäler: Österreich. Vienna, 1933. Lützow, C. von, and Tischler, L. (eds). Wiener Neubauten. 2 vols. Vienna, 1876-80. Rados, J. A magyar klasszicista építészet hagyományai. Budapest, 1953. Schmidt, J. , and Tietze, H. Wien. Vienna [1954]. Tietze, H. Wien. Leipzig, 1928. Virgil, B. A magyar klasszicismus epiteszete. Budapest, 1948. Wiener Neubauten in Stil der Sezession. 6 vols. Vienna, 1908-10. Wirth, Z. Ceśká architektura, 1800-1920. Prague, 1922. Archite

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Great Britain

Great Britain

Boase, T. S. R. English Art 1800-1870. London, 1959. Casson, H. An Introduction to Victorian Architecture. London, 1948. Casson, H. New Sights of London. London, 1938. Clark, K. The Gothic Revival. London, 1928; second edition 1950. Clarke, B. F. L. Church Builders of the Nineteenth Century. London, 1938. Colvin, H. M. A Biographical Dictionary of English Architects, 1660-1840. London, 1954. Eastlake, C. L. A History of the Gothic Revival. London, 1872. Goodhart-Rendel, H. S. English Architectur

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Greece

Greece

Russack, H. H. Deutsches Bauen in Athen. Berlin, 1942....

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Holland

Holland

Behne, A. Holländische Baukunst in der Gegenwart. Berlin, 1922. Blijstra, R. Netherlands Architecture since 1900. Amsterdam, 1960. Mieras, J. , and Yerbury, F. Dutch Architecture of the XXth century. London, 1926. Moderne Bouwkunst in Nederland. 20 vols. Rotterdam, 1932. Nederland bouwt in Baksteen, 1800-1940. (Catalogue of exhibition at Boijmans Museum.) Rotterdam, 1941. Oud, J. J. P. Holländische Architektur. Munich, 1926. Thienen, F. van. ‘De bouwkunst van de laatste anderhalve eeuw’, in H. v

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Italy

Italy

Bottoni, P. Antologia di edifici moderni in Milano. Milan, 1954. Caracciolo, E. ‘Architettura dell’ottocento in Sicilia’, Metron , VII (Oct. 1952), 29-40. Golfieri, E. Artisti neoclassici in Faenza. Faenza, 1929. Kidder Smith, G. E. Italy Builds. London, 1955. Olivero, E. L’Architettura in Torino durante la prima metà dell’ Ottocento. Turin [1952]. Pagani, C. Architettura italiana oggi. Milan, 1955. Pica, A. Architettura moderna in Italia. Milan 1941. Reggiori, F. Milano 1800-1943. Milan, 1947.

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Latin America

Latin America

Arango, J. , and Martinez, C. Arquitectura en Colombia. Bogotá, 1951. Cetto, M. Modern Architecture in Mexico. New York, 1961. Goodwin, P. Brazil Builds. New York, 1943. Hitchcock, H.-R. Latin American Architecture since 1945. New York, 1955. Mindlin, H. Modern Architecture in Brazil. New York [1956]. Myers, I. E. Mexico’s Modern Architecture. New York, 1952....

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Russia and Poland

Russia and Poland

Architektura polska do poowy XIX wicku. Warsaw, 1952. Dmochowski, Z. The Architecture of Poland. London, 1956. Grabar, I. Istoriya Russkagho iskusstva , vols 3 and 4. Moscow [1912, 1915]. Hamilton, G. H. The Art and Architecture of Russia , Chapters 21-23. Harmondsworth, 1954. Lo Gatto, E. Gli architetti del secolo XIX a Pietroburgo e nelle tenute imperiali. Rome, 1943. Nekrasov, A. Russki Ampir. Moscow, 1935....

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Scandinavia

Scandinavia

Ahlberg, H. Swedish Architecture of the Twentieth Century. London, 1925. Architecture in Finland (R.I.B.A. Exhibition Catalogue). London, 1957. Cornell, E. Ny svensk byggnadskonst. Stockholm, 1950. Danish Architecture of Today (catalogue of exhibition at R.I.B.A.). London, 1950. Denmark (special issue on Danish Architecture). Architectural Review , CIV (1948). Finland bygger. Helsinki, 1953. Finsen, H. Ung danske arkitektur, 1930-45. Copenhagen, 1947. Fisker, K. , and Yerbury, F. R. Modern Danis

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Switzerland

Switzerland

Bill, M. Moderne Schweizer Architektur, 1925-1945. Basel, 1949. Jenny, H. Kunstführer der Schweiz, ein Handbuch ... der Baukunst. Bern, 1945. Moderne Schweizer Architektur , 10 vols. Basel, 1940-6. Smith, G. E. K. Switzerland Builds. London, 1950....

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Spain

Spain

Calzada, A. Historia de la arquitectura española. Barcelona, 1933. Cirici-Pellicer, P. El arte modernista catalán. Barcelona, 1951. Flores, C. Arquitectura española contemporanea. Madrid, 1961. Lozoya , Marqués de ( Contraveras , J. de). Historia del arte hispánico , v. Barcelona, 1949....

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United States

United States

Artistic Homes. New York, 1886. Andrews, W. Architecture, Ambition and Americans. New York, 1955. Andrews, W. Architecture in America, A Photographic History. New York, 1960. Condit, C. The Rise of the Skyscraper. Chicago, 1952. Condit, C. American Building Art—The Nineteenth Century. New York, 1960. Condit, C. American Building Art—The Twentieth Century. New York, 1961. Denmark, E. R. Architecture of the Old South. Atlanta [1926]. Downing, A. , and Scully, V. J. The Architectural Heritage of Ne

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MONOGRAPHS

MONOGRAPHS

Aalto Gutheim, F. Alvar Aalto. New York, 1960. Labò, G. Alvar Aalto. Milan, 1948. Neuenschwander, E. and C. Finnish Buildings; Atelier Alvar Aalto, 1950-1951. Erlenbach-Zurich, 1954. Adam Adam, R., and J. The Works in Architecture. 2 vols. London, 1778-9. Bolton, A. T. Robert and James Adam. 2 vols. London, 1922. Fleming, J. Robert Adam and his Circle. London, 1962. Asplund Zevi, B. E. Gunnar Asplund. Milan, 1948. Holmdahl, G., Lind, S., and Ödeen, K. (eds.). Gunnar Asplund Architect, 1885-1940.

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THE PLATES

THE PLATES

1 J.-G. Soufflot and others: Paris, Panthéon (Sainte-Geneviève), 1757-90 2 ( A ) C.-N. Ledoux: Paris, Barrière de la Villette, 1784-9 2 ( B ) C.-N. Ledoux: Project for Coopery, c. 1785 ( C ) L.-E. Boullée: Project for City Hall, c. 1785 3 Sir John Soane: London, Bank of England, Consols Office, 1794 4 ( A ) Sir John Soane: London, Bank of England, Waiting Room Court, 1804 4 ( B ) C. F. Hansen: Copenhagen, Vor Frue Kirke, 1811-29 5 Benjamin H. Latrobe: Baltimore, Maryland, Catholic Cathedral, 180

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