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PREFACE
PREFACE
Although the age of Justinian is the most interesting and important in the whole series of the Byzantine annals, no comprehensive work has hitherto been devoted to the subject. The valuable and erudite “Vita Justiniani” of Ludewig is more of a law book than of a biography, and less of a circumstantial history than of either. The somewhat strange medley published by Isambert under the title “Vie de Justinien” is scarcely a complete chronology of the events, and might be called a manual of the sou
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PREFATORY NOTE TO SECOND EDITION
PREFATORY NOTE TO SECOND EDITION
This work has now been carefully revised and slightly enlarged. I am indebted to suggestions from various reviewers of the first edition for several of the improvements introduced. Occasionally, however, they are in error and at variance among themselves on some of the points noted. A few of my critics have accused me of being too discursive, especially in my notes, an impression which is the natural result of my not having expressed it definitely anywhere that my object was to present not merel
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PROEM
PROEM
The birth and death of worlds are ephemeral events in a cycle of astronomical time. In the life history of a stellar system, of a planet, of an animal, parallel periods of origin, exuberance, and of extinction are exhibited to our experience, or to our understanding. Man, in his material existence confined to a point, by continuity of effort and perpetuity of thought, becomes coequal and coextensive with the infinities of time and space. The intellectual store of ages has evolved the supremacy o
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ADDITIONAL CORRECTIONS
ADDITIONAL CORRECTIONS
P. 127, n. 1, legends and hearsay; p. 133, n. 3, καρξιμάδες; p. 141, n. 2, i; p. 165, regions, 1 own, 2 other 3 (to n. 1 next page); p. 166, soldiers, arms, 2 etc.; p. 169, n. 6, Marcellinus; p. 188, herd; { ib. , n. 1, c. 530}; p. 191, n. 1, XII, not xii; p. 220, judgment; p. 225, n. 1, cadavérique; p. 232, n. 1, add, on its way to resolution into the formless protyle or ether; p. 283, the outposts; p. 300, n. 6, add, cf. Jn. Malala, xviii, p. 490; p. 309, n. 2, add, cf. Chron. Paschal., an. 60
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I. History
I. History
The first peopling of the site of Constantinople is a question in prehistoric research, which has not yet been elucidated by the palaeontologist. Unlike the Roman area, no relics of an age of stone or bronze have been discovered here; [4] do not, perhaps, exist, but doubtless the opportunities, if not the men, have been wanting for such investigations. [5] That the region seemed to the primitive Greeks to be a wild and desolate one, we learn from the tradition of the Argonautic expedition; [6] a
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II. Topography
II. Topography
Having now traced the growth of the city on the Golden Horn from its origin in the dawn of Grecian history until its expansion into the capital of the greatest empire of the past, I have reached the threshold of my actual task—to place before the reader a picture of Constantinople at the beginning of the sixth century in its topographical and sociological aspects. The literary materials, though abundant, are in great part unreliable and are often devoid of information which would be found in the
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III. Sociology
III. Sociology
To make this chapter fully consonant to its title it now remains for us to pass in review the sociological condition of the inhabitants, whilst we try to learn something of their mode of life, their national characteristics, and their mental aptitudes. We have already seen that in the case of the Neo-Byzantines or Lesser Greeks, [368] the path of evolution lay through a series of historical vicissitudes in which there was more of artificial forcing than of the insensible growth essential to the
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I. Political
I. Political
The dominions of Anastasius the elder, [549] for there was a later emperor of that name, corresponded generally to those ruled during the first quarter of the past century by the Ottoman sultans, who were the last to conquer them, and who became possessed of the whole in 1461. [550] Proceeding from east to west, the northern boundary of the Empire followed the coast of the Euxine in its sweep from the mouth of the Phasis (adjacent to the modern town of Batoum) to the estuaries of the Danube, as
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II. Educational
II. Educational
Superstition flourishes because knowledge is still the luxury of the few. By education alone can we hope to attain to the extinction of that phase of mind termed belief, or faith, which has always been inculcated as a virtue or a duty by the priest, and condemned as a vice of the intellect by the philosopher. In every age, the ability to discern the lines of demarcation which separate the known from the unknown is the initial stage of advancement; and in the training of youth, the prime object o
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III. Religious.
III. Religious.
The increase of knowledge in the nineteenth century has stripped every shred of supernaturalism from our conception of popular religions. The studies and inventions of modern science have illuminated every corner of the universe; and our discovery of the origins has cleared the greatest stumbling-block from the path of philosophy and removed the last prop which sustained the fabric of organized superstition. The world will one day have to face the truth about religion; and it may then become nec
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CHAPTER III BIRTH AND FORTUNES OF THE ELDER JUSTIN: THE ORIGINS OF JUSTINIAN
CHAPTER III BIRTH AND FORTUNES OF THE ELDER JUSTIN: THE ORIGINS OF JUSTINIAN
The function of a government is to administer the affairs of mankind in accordance with the spirit of the age. Not from the political arena, but from the laboratory emanates that expansion of knowledge which surely, though fitfully, changes the aspect and methods of civilization both in peace and war. An impulse which controls the passions of millions may originate with some obscure investigator who reveals a more immediate means to individual or national advantage; and the executive of governme
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CHAPTER IV PRE-IMPERIAL CAREER OF THEODORA: THE CONSORT OF JUSTINIAN
CHAPTER IV PRE-IMPERIAL CAREER OF THEODORA: THE CONSORT OF JUSTINIAN
The influence of women in antiquity varied extremely according to circumstances of time and place. During the mythical age they are celebrated as the heroines of many a legend; and in the epics of Homer the free woman seems to live on terms of equality with her male relations. [1166] Down to the historical period the same consideration was continued to them at Sparta, where the mental and physical integrity of the females was cultivated as essential to the designed superiority of the race; [1167
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ADDITIONS
ADDITIONS
P. 20, n. 1. The date of the dialogue Philopatris has been the subject of much argument, notably in Byzant. Zeitschrift , vols. v and vi, 1896-7. It has been placed under Carus, Julian, Heraclius, and John Zimisces. The matter is unintelligible unless at an early period of Christianity, and I should be inclined to maintain that interpolations in one or two places by late copyists (see p. 256 ) have given it a false semblance of recency. P. 24, note. John Malala was unknown to Ducange (not having
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CHAPTER V THE PERSIANS AND JUSTINIAN'S FIRST WAR WITH THEM
CHAPTER V THE PERSIANS AND JUSTINIAN'S FIRST WAR WITH THEM
ON the death of Justin the absolute control of the Empire became centred in the hands of Justinian. Nine years of virtual sovereignty during the lifetime of his uncle had familiarized him with Imperial procedure, and nullified the influence of a bureaucracy which might aspire to govern vicariously by taking advantage of his ignorance of affairs. His tutors in the art of autocracy were dead or superannuated, and his present subordinates owed their elevation to his favour and judgment. The new Emp
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CHAPTER VI THE SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY AT ATHENS AND THEIR ABOLITION BY JUSTINIAN
CHAPTER VI THE SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY AT ATHENS AND THEIR ABOLITION BY JUSTINIAN
THE systematic teaching of philosophy at Athens had its origin in the dialectic of Socrates, whose mental bias impelled him to a persistent search after the fundamental truths which underlie the sociological organization of mankind. His constant effort was to discover what principles should be instilled into young men in order to render them worthy members of the community; and in pursuit of this object he made a practice of perambulating the city intent on applying his method of question and ar
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CHAPTER VII THE INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE EMPIRE: INSURRECTION OF THE CIRCUS FACTIONS IN THE CAPITAL
CHAPTER VII THE INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE EMPIRE: INSURRECTION OF THE CIRCUS FACTIONS IN THE CAPITAL
THE keystone of Justinian's administration was his lavish expenditure of money. Every enterprise that could engage the attention of a monarch incited him to emulation, and in arms, legislation, civil reform, public works, and religion, he aspired to equal the achievements of the greatest princes. Hence the persistent need for a well-filled treasury, and the constant injunction to the Rectors in the provinces. "Above all things apply yourselves to gathering in the imposts"; whilst the subject is
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CHAPTER VIII CARTHAGE UNDER THE ROMANS: RECOVERY OF AFRICA FROM THE VANDALS
CHAPTER VIII CARTHAGE UNDER THE ROMANS: RECOVERY OF AFRICA FROM THE VANDALS
THE Vandalic settlement of Africa (in Imperial nomenclature the name was officially reserved to the north-west portion of that continent) was more keenly resented by the Romans than the barbaric occupation of any other province of the Western Empire. In other instances disintegration had been gradual and the territory had been resigned to the new possessors with a sense of political inability to retain them, whilst a semblance of fealty to the Eastern Emperor indulged his pretensions to supremac
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CHAPTER IX THE BUILDING OF ST. SOPHIA: THE ARCHITECTURAL WORK OF JUSTINIAN
CHAPTER IX THE BUILDING OF ST. SOPHIA: THE ARCHITECTURAL WORK OF JUSTINIAN
WHILST it is evident that the distinctive character of Justinian impelled him to be incessantly active in every branch of the monarchical profession, the devastation wrought at Constantinople by the Nika rebellion might have awakened a passion for building in the breast of the most phlegmatic Emperor. [459] A mass of sightless ruins had taken the place of those architectural adornments which are the essential feature of a capital and the foundations of the dignity of a throne. The restoration of
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CHAPTER X ROME IN THE SIXTH CENTURY: WAR WITH THE GOTHS IN ITALY
CHAPTER X ROME IN THE SIXTH CENTURY: WAR WITH THE GOTHS IN ITALY
IN the third quarter of the fifth century, the Teutonic invaders of the Western Empire had established themselves firmly in all its provinces, and wielded a predominant power in the government. In the year 476 Odovacar was the head of the barbarians in Italy, whilst a youth named Romulus Augustulus was formally recognized as Emperor. [503] The potent barbarian abolished the Imperial throne and relegated its occupant to a decent exile in the castle of Lucullus in Campania. [504] At the same time
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CHAPTER XI THE SECOND PERSIAN WAR: FALL OF ANTIOCH: MILITARY OPERATIONS IN LAZICA
CHAPTER XI THE SECOND PERSIAN WAR: FALL OF ANTIOCH: MILITARY OPERATIONS IN LAZICA
WHILE Justinian was thus conquering in the West and substituting his own rule for that of barbarian potentates, the tide of war was rising in the East, and almost similar disasters to those he was inflicting were impending on the integral territory of the Empire. The triumphal progress of the Imperial arms in Africa and Italy was watched with the keenest solicitude by Chosroes, and he began to fear that the power and resources of his hereditary rival were being so formidably increased that he wo
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CHAPTER XII PRIVATE LIFE IN THE IMPERIAL CIRCLE AND ITS DEPENDENCIES
CHAPTER XII PRIVATE LIFE IN THE IMPERIAL CIRCLE AND ITS DEPENDENCIES
WHILE the diplomacy of Justinian and the strategy of Belisarius were apparently dictated only by motives of state policy and military expediency, there were private influences at work, which modified considerably the execution of their projects. The feminine proclivities and prejudices of Theodora and Antonina on more than one occasion diverted both men from the course which their better judgment inclined them to follow. Distinctive as were the characters of the Emperor and his most renowned gen
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CHAPTER XIII THE FINAL CONQUEST OF ITALY AND ITS ANNEXATION TO THE EMPIRE
CHAPTER XIII THE FINAL CONQUEST OF ITALY AND ITS ANNEXATION TO THE EMPIRE
NOTWITHSTANDING the signal success of Belisarius in his Italian campaign, the Gothic Kingdom was even further from being actually subjugated to the Byzantine power than was Africa after the capture of Gelimer. The first care of Justinian was to appoint Alexander, an eminent Logothete, popularly known as "the Scissors," to supervise the financial administration of the country. His distinguishing sobriquet had been acquired through his remarkable dexterity in clipping round the gold coin according
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CHAPTER XIV RELIGION IN THE SIXTH CENTURY: JUSTINIAN AS A THEOLOGIAN
CHAPTER XIV RELIGION IN THE SIXTH CENTURY: JUSTINIAN AS A THEOLOGIAN
THE reign of Justinian in its theological aspect was a long contest between the Dyophysites, that is, the Orthodox Christians according to the creed of the dominant hierarchy, and the Monophysites. Although the Emperor was devotedly attached to Orthodoxy, he was above all things desirous of finding some common ground on which the conflicting sects could meet and be reconciled. From the opposite side Theodora was animated by a similar policy; she warmly espoused the Monophysite doctrine, but was
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CHAPTER XV PECULIARITIES OF ROMAN LAW: THE LEGISLATION OF JUSTINIAN
CHAPTER XV PECULIARITIES OF ROMAN LAW: THE LEGISLATION OF JUSTINIAN
THE mutual relations of the members of a community naturally fall into two divisions, that is, public and private. [769] In the first we have to consider the activities of the citizens politically, or with reference to the work of the government or administration, which enacts, or sanctions and enforces, the laws under which they live. In this sphere of sociology the connection of the individuals with each other arises only through their dwelling in contiguity within some circumscribed area, and
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CHAPTER XVI THE LAST DAYS OF JUSTINIAN: LITERATURE AND ART IN THE SIXTH CENTURY: SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF THE REIGN
CHAPTER XVI THE LAST DAYS OF JUSTINIAN: LITERATURE AND ART IN THE SIXTH CENTURY: SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF THE REIGN
IN the spring of 550, when the five years' truce with Persia expired, Justinian became anxious to effect a further pacification with Chosroes, and Peter Magister, with whose diplomatic work we are already familiar, was entrusted with the negotiations. The Shah, however, declined to formulate any definite terms at the moment and dismissed him with a promise that he would shortly send a plenipotentiary of his own to the Byzantine Court, who should have full powers to draft a treaty in accordance w
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CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA
CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA
Pp. 19, 744 , notes. See a letter of mine in The Athenæum , 30th June 1906, p. 798, in which I show that, almost without exception, Byzantine writers use the old name even as late as Photius and Anna Comnena. Cf. note to p. 632 infra . P. 20, for 446 read 409. P. 34, n. 2, insert, the elephants are. P. 49. There is an ivory carving thought to represent a religious procession passing the Chalke, c. 552: reproduced in Strzygowski, Byzant. Denkmäler, iii, 1903, p. xviii; also in Beylié's work and o
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