Public School Domestic Science - free ebook by Adelaide Hoodless

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Public School Domestic Science

Adelaide Hoodless

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61 chapters

MRS. J. HOODLESS,

MRS. J. HOODLESS,

Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by The Copp, Clark Company, Limited , Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. "I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which embitters the latter half of life is due to avoidable errors in diet, and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired vigour, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man in England and throughout

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The Relation of Food to the Body.

The Relation of Food to the Body.

In order to understand the relation of food to the sustenance and repairing of the body, it will be necessary to learn, first, of what the body is composed, and the corresponding elements contained in the food required to build and keep the body in a healthy condition. The following table gives the approximate analysis of a man weighing 148 pounds:— As food contains all these elements, and as there is constant wearing and repair going on in the body, it will be readily seen how necessary some kn

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Food Classification.

Food Classification.

The following are familiar examples of compounds of each of the four principal classes of nutrients: The terms ( a ) "nitrogenous" and ( b ) "carbonaceous" are frequently used to designate the two distinct classes of food, viz.: ( a ) the tissue builders and flesh formers; ( b ) fuel and force producers. Each of these classes contains food material derived from both the animal and vegetable kingdom, although the majority of the animal substances belong to the nitrogenous, and the majority of the

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Uses of Food.

Uses of Food.

First, food is used to form the materials of the body and repair its waste; second, to yield energy in the form of (1) heat to keep the body warm, (2) to provide muscular and other power for the work it has to do. In forming the tissues and fluids of the body the food serves for building and repair. In yielding energy, it serves as fuel for heat and power. The principal tissue formers are the albuminoids; these form the frame-work of the body. They build and repair the nitrogenous materials, as

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Water.

Water.

By referring to a preceding chapter we find that water composes three-fifths of the entire body. The elasticity of muscles, cartilage, tendons, and even of bones is due in great part to the water which these tissues contain. The amount of water required by a healthy man in twenty-four hours (children in proportion) is on the average between 50 and 60 ounces, beside about 25 ounces taken as an ingredient of solid food, thus making a total of from 75 to 85 ounces. One of the most universal dieteti

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Salts (Mineral Matter).—Use of Salts in Food.

Salts (Mineral Matter).—Use of Salts in Food.

(1) To regulate the specific gravity of the blood and other fluids of the body; (2) to preserve the tissues from disorganization and putrefaction; (3) to enter into the composition of the teeth and bones. These are only a few of the uses of salts in the body, but are sufficient for our purpose. Fruits and nuts contain the least quantity of salts, meat ranks next, then vegetables and pulses, cereals contain most of all (Chambers). Sodium chloride (common salt) is the most important and valuable s

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Nutrition.

Nutrition.

It is not within the scope of this book to deal with the science of nutrition; but a few general principles may be given which concern the effect upon the system of the different classes of food. Animal food requires a considerable quantity of oxygen for its complete combustion. Meat in general has a more stimulating effect upon the system and is more strengthening than vegetable food. There is, however, a tendency to eat too much meat, and when its effects are not counter-balanced by free outdo

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Food and Economy.

Food and Economy.

It has been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters of a pound of moderately lean beef, and five ounces of wheat flour contain about the same amount of nutritive material;" but we pay different prices for them, and they have different values for nutriment. The milk comes nearest to being a perfect food. It contains all the different kinds of nutritive materials that the body requires. Bread made from wheat flour will support life. It contains all the necessary ingredients for nourishment, b

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Quantity of Food Required.

Quantity of Food Required.

The quantity of food required to maintain the body in a vigorous condition depends upon the following conditions:—(1) Climate and season, (2) clothing, (3) occupation, (4) age and sex. In civilized countries more food is eaten, as a rule, than is necessary to maintain health and strength. Climate and seasons influence the quantity of food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the appetite, tempts one to exercise, while a hot climate has the contrary effect; hence the need for more or less

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Quality of Food.

Quality of Food.

It is a great mistake to think that the best is the cheapest in regard to the food question, that the higher priced meats, fish, butter, etc., contain special virtues lacking in the cheaper articles. Poor cooking is the chief cause of this error in judgment. No doubt a well broiled steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some of the cheaper cuts, but in proportion to the cost is not equal in nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious flavoring render the cheaper pieces of beef e

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Cooking of Food.

Cooking of Food.

It is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food? As many opportunities will occur during this course of instruction for a comparison of the customs and diet of the various countries, and the advance of civilization in this direction, we will confine ourselves to the definition of the term as it concerns ourselves. Mr. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right application of heat for the conversion of food material." As much of our food requires cooking, how we shall cook it so as to render it mor

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Methods.

Methods.

The following are the usual methods observed in cooking, viz.: (1) boiling, (2) stewing, (3) roasting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6) braising, (7) baking, (8) steaming. Water boils at a temperature of 212° F. Simmering should be at a temperature of from 175° F. to 180° F. When water has reached the boiling point, its temperature cannot be raised, but will be converted into steam; hence the folly of adding fuel to the fire when water has already reached the boiling point. Stewing allows the juice

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Food Preservation.

Food Preservation.

Food is preserved by the following processes: (1) drying, (2) smoking, (3) salting, (4) freezing, (5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7) addition of antiseptic and preservative substances. Drying in the sun and before a fire is the usual method employed by housekeepers. Fruits and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved by drying, the latter with the addition of salt. Smoking is chiefly applied to beef, tongue, bacon, ham, and fish, which are hung in a confined chamber, saturated with wood smoke

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Foods Containing Protein, or Nitrogenous Matter.

Foods Containing Protein, or Nitrogenous Matter.

Animal foods contain nutritive matter in a concentrated form, and being chemically similar to the composition of the body is doubtless the reason why they assimilate more readily than vegetable foods, although the latter are richer in mineral matter. The most valuable animal foods in common use are meat, eggs, milk, fish, gelatin and fats. Meat is composed of muscular tissue, connective tissue or gristle, fatty tissue, blood-vessels, nerves, bone, etc. The value of meat as food is due chiefly to

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Cooking of Meat.

Cooking of Meat.

In boiling meat two principles must be considered, the softening of the fibre and preserving of the juices. If the meat alone is to be used it should be placed in sufficient boiling water to completely cover, and kept at boiling point (212° F.) for at least ten minutes, so as to harden the albumen and prevent the escape of the juices. The temperature should then be allowed to fall to simmering point (175° F.). If the water is kept boiling it will render the meat tough and dry. If the juice is to

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Varieties of Meat.

Varieties of Meat.

Beef tongue is a tender form of meat, but contains too much fat to agree well with people of delicate digestion. Veal, when obtained from animals killed too young, is apt to be tough, pale and indigestible, but good veal is considered fairly nutritious. It contains more gelatin than beef, and in broth is considered valuable, especially for the sick. Mutton is considered to be more digestible than beef, that is well fed mutton from sheep at least three years old; but as it is more difficult to ob

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Legumes—Peas, Beans and Lentils.

Legumes—Peas, Beans and Lentils.

These vegetables contain as much protein as meat; yet, this being inferior in quality to that contained in meat, they can scarcely be given a place in the same class; therefore we will give them an intermediate position in food value between meat and grains. From the standpoint of economy they occupy a high place in nutritive value, especially for outdoor workers. (See Recipes.)...

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Fats and Oils.

Fats and Oils.

Fats and oils contain three elements—carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. About one-fifth of the body is composed of fat. Before death results from starvation 90 per cent. of the body fat is consumed. (1) To furnish energy for the development of heat; (2) to supply force; (3) to serve as covering and protection in the body; (4) to lubricate the various structures of the body; and (5) to spare the tissues. The fats and oils used as food all serve the same purpose, and come before the carbohydrates in fue

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Carbohydrate Foods.

Carbohydrate Foods.

The idea of starchy foods is usually connected with such substances as laundry starch, cornstarch, arrow root, etc. These are, of course, more concentrated forms of starch than potatoes, rice, etc. Many starchy foods contain other ingredients, and some are especially rich in proteids. The following table may help to make this clear (Atwater):— It is estimated that starch composes one-half of peas, beans, wheat, oats and rye, three-fourths of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes. Vegetable protei

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Sugars.

Sugars.

There are many varieties of sugar in common use, viz.: cane sugar, grape sugar or glucose, and sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars have practically the same use as starch; sugar, owing to its solubility, taxes the digestive organs very little. Over-indulgence in sugar, however, tends to cause various disorders of assimilation and nutrition. Sugar is also very fattening, it is a force producer, and can be used with greater safety by those engaged in active muscular work. Cane sugar is the cl

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Grains.

Grains.

While the grains contain less proteid than the legumes, they are more valuable on account of the variety of the nutrients contained in them, and are more easily adapted to the demands of the appetite. They, however, require long, slow cooking in order to soften the fibre and render the starch more soluble. Among the most important we may place: A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three layers. The first or outer one contains the bran; second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the starch. Some

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Vegetables.

Vegetables.

Legumes—peas, beans and lentils—have an exceedingly leathery envelope when old; and unless soaked for a long time in cold water—in order to soften the woody fibre—and are then cooked slowly for some hours, are very indigestible. Pea and bean soups are considered very nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are dried and split, in which form they are used in soups. Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubers. As an article of diet they possess little nutritive value, being about three-fourth

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Fruits.

Fruits.

Fruits are composed largely of water, with starches, a vegetable jelly, pectin, cellulose and organic acids. The most important acids in fruit are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is found in lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric acid in grapes; malic acid in apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants. Among the least acid are peaches, sweet apples, bananas and prunes. Strawberries are moderately acid, while lemons and currants contain the most acid of all....

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Uses of Fruit.

Uses of Fruit.

(1) To furnish nutriment; (2) to convey water to the system and relieve thirst; (3) to introduce various mineral matter (salts) and acids which improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-scorbutics; (5) as laxatives and cathartics; (6) to stimulate the appetite, improve digestion and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons and oranges are especially valuable for the potash salts, lime and magnesia they contain. Fruit as a common article of daily diet is highly beneficial, and should be us

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Beverages.

Beverages.

Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin which exists in tea, is also found in coffee and wines, and is very injurious. Tea is a preparation made from the leaves of a shrub called Thea. The difference between black and green tea is due to the mode of preparation, and not to separate species of plant. Green tea contains more tannin than black. The following table will show the difference:— The stimulating properties which tea possesses, as well as its color and flavor, depend upon the season o

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Condiments.

Condiments.

Condiments and spices are used as food adjuncts; they supply little nourishment, the effect being mainly stimulating, and are very injurious when used in excess. They add flavor to food and relieve monotony of diet. The use of such condiments as pepper, curry, pickles, vinegar and mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Salt is the only necessary condiment, for reasons given in the chapter on mineral matter. The blending of flavors so as to make food more palatable without being injured is one

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Preparing Food.

Preparing Food.

The knowledge of food values and their relation to the body will be of little use for practical purposes unless combined with the knowledge of how the various foods should be prepared, either by cooking or in whatever form circumstances and the material may require. The first requisite for cooking purposes is heat; this necessitates the use of fuel. The fuels chiefly used for household purposes are wood, coal, kerosene oil and gas. Soft woods, such as pine or birch, are best for kindling and for

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Making and Care of a Fire.

Making and Care of a Fire.

Great care should be exercised in the selection of a stove or range. The plainer the range the easier it will be to keep it clean. There should be plenty of dampers that can be used to hasten the fire or to check it. Learn thoroughly the management of the range before beginning to cook. In lighting a fire, remove the covers, brush the soot from the top of the oven into the fire-box; clean out the grate (saving all the unburned coal, and cinders). Put in shavings or paper, then kindling arranged

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Measurements.

Measurements.

Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in cooking. As there is such a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a heaping spoonful, all the measurements given in this book will be by level spoonfuls. A cupful is all the cup will hold without running over, and the cup is one holding 1/2 pint. The following table may be used where scales are not convenient:—...

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Methods for Flour Mixtures.

Methods for Flour Mixtures.

Stirring is simply blending two or more materials by moving the spoon round and round until smooth and of the proper consistency. Beating is bringing the spoon up through the mixture with a quick movement so as to entangle as much air as possible. Cutting or folding is adding the beaten white of egg to a mixture without breaking the air bubbles, by lifting and turning the mixture over and over as in folding. Do not stir or beat....

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BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD.

BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD.

Beat the eggs (without separating) until very light, then add the milk and salt; pour this mixture on the flour (slowly), beating all the while. Beat until smooth and light, about five minutes. Grease gem pans or small cups, and bake in a moderately hot oven about thirty-five minutes. They should increase to four times their original size. (This recipe may be divided for class work.) Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately; add the yolks to the milk, then the melted butter; salt. Sift t

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BREAD.

BREAD.

As bread is one of the most important articles of the daily diet, it naturally follows that special attention should be given to a subject upon which the health of the family, to a great extent, depends. A knowledge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chap. VII) must be understood before proficiency in bread-making can be attained. The first element to consider is the yeast , and the generating of carbonic acid gas, so as to have the bread light, tender, and porous. Yeast is a plant or

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SAUCES AND MILK SOUPS.

SAUCES AND MILK SOUPS.

Heat the milk over hot water. Put the butter in a granite saucepan and stir till it melts, being careful not to brown. Add the dry flour, and stir quickly till well mixed. Add the milk gradually, stirring carefully (especially from the sides) until perfectly smooth. Let it boil until it thickens, then add salt and pepper. In using this sauce for creamed oysters, add 1/2 tsp. of celery salt, a few grains of cayenne pepper, and a tsp. of lemon juice. Put the butter in the saucepan; when melted add

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EGGS.

EGGS.

While eggs are nutritious and valuable as food they should not be used too freely, as they are a highly concentrated form of food. The albumen (white) of egg is one of the most valuable tissue builders. Much depends upon the manner in which they are cooked. Eggs fried in fat or hard boiled are very indigestible. Do not use an egg until it has been laid some hours, as the white does not become thick till then and cannot be beaten stiff. Eggs should be kept in a cool dark place, and handled carefu

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FRUIT.

FRUIT.

If people would only realize the value of fruit in its natural state, much of the time devoted to the preparation of pies, puddings, etc., would be saved. All uncooked fruit should be thoroughly ripe and served fresh and cold. Sometimes fruit is more easily digested when the woody fibre has been softened by cooking than when in its natural state, therefore a few simple recipes for cooking fruit are given. Pare, core and quarter 6 or 8 tart apples. Make a syrup with 1/2 cup of sugar, 1/2 cup of w

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VEGETABLES.

VEGETABLES.

Vegetables should be used very freely, as they contain saline substances which counteract the effect of too much meat, and are the chief source of mineral supply for the body. In cooking vegetables, a common rule is to add salt, while cooking, to all classes growing above ground (including onions), and to omit salt in the cooking of vegetables growing underground. In cooking vegetables care must be taken to preserve the flavor, and to prevent the waste of mineral matter. Cut a small head of cabb

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SALADS.

SALADS.

Mix these ingredients together and serve. This makes a particularly good dressing for lettuce or vegetable salads. Beat the eggs well, mix the sugar, salt, mustard and pepper together, add to the beaten eggs, then add the vinegar. Place the saucepan on the range in a pan of boiling water. Stir constantly until the dressing becomes thick and light. Take from the fire and turn into a cold bowl at once to prevent curdling. Beat the cream to a thick froth and stir it into the cold dressing. (When cr

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CEREALS.

CEREALS.

All cereals require thorough cooking, because of the starch in them, also to soften the woody fibre. No matter what the cereal product may be, it should be cooked not less than three-quarters of an hour, and better if cooked longer. Be sure to have the water boiling. Sprinkle in the oatmeal slowly, stirring all the time. Add the salt, and move back or set in a vessel of boiling water where it will cook gently for 1 hour. Do not stir the porridge after the first 5 minutes. All porridge (or mush)

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MACARONI.

MACARONI.

Macaroni is quite as valuable as bread for food, and should be used very freely. Break the macaroni in pieces about 2 inches long. Have boiling water, add a tsp. of salt; throw in the macaroni and boil rapidly 30 minutes, put it into a colander to drain, return to the kettle, rub a tbsp. of butter and flour together until smooth, add either milk or water until the sauce is as thick as rich cream. Cook it a few minutes before pouring over the macaroni, and serve (add salt to taste). Hold the long

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CHEESE.

CHEESE.

Put the butter in a saucepan, when melted stir in the flour, add the milk slowly, then the salt, mustard and cayenne, which have been mixed together. Add the yolks of the eggs which have been well beaten, then the grated cheese; stir all together, lift from the fire and set away to cool. When cold, add the stiff beaten whites, turn into a buttered dish and bake 25 or 30 minutes. Serve immediately. Grate the cheese, put it with the milk in the double boiler. While this is heating, make some toast

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BEVERAGES.

BEVERAGES.

In making tea, the following rules should be observed. The water should be freshly boiled. The teapot, which should be of earthen or china (never of tin), should be scalded and heated before putting in the tea. Pour on the boiling water and cover closely, and let stand for 3 or 4 minutes before using. Never, under any circumstances, allow tea to boil. The usual proportion is a small teaspoonful of tea to 1 cup of boiling water, but this is too strong for general use. Coffee may be made in variou

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SOUPS.

SOUPS.

Soups may be divided into two classes, soup made with stock, and with milk. As soup should form part of the regular daily diet, and may be made from the cheaper materials, it is absolutely necessary that every housekeeper should understand the art of making it properly. In the first place it is well to know what may be used in the process of soup making. The first and most important step is to prepare the stock. For this purpose have a large earthen bowl or "catch all," as some teachers call it.

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FISH.

FISH.

Fish is an invaluable article of food. It provides variety in diet, and while less stimulating than meat, is usually more easily digested. Fish should be perfectly fresh and thoroughly cooked. The most wholesome as well as the most palatable methods for cooking fish are broiling and baking. The flesh of fresh fish is firm and will not retain the impress of the finger if pressed into it. The eyes should be bright and glassy, the gills red and full of blood. Fish should be cleaned as soon as possi

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MEAT.

MEAT.

As meat is composed of several substances, fibrine, albumen, gelatin, fat and the juices, it is necessary to understand the various methods of cooking in order to secure the best results. Meat has its season as well as many other foods. Pork is better in autumn and winter; veal in the spring and summer; fowl in autumn and winter; lamb in the summer and autumn; mutton and beef may be used any time. Meat should not be allowed to remain in the paper in which it comes from market, as it absorbs the

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POULTRY.

POULTRY.

The best chickens have soft yellow feet, short thick legs, smooth, moist skin and plump breast; the cartilage on the end of the breast bone is soft and pliable. Pin feathers always indicate a young bird and long hairs an older one. All poultry should be dressed as soon as killed. Cut off the head, and if the fowl is to be roasted, slip the skin back from the neck and cut the neck off close to the body, leaving skin enough to fold over on the back. Remove the windpipe, pull the crop away from the

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HOT PUDDINGS.

HOT PUDDINGS.

Mix the dry ingredients, beat the egg and mix it with the milk, stir this into the dry mixture. Core, pare and cut the apples into quarters (if large into eighths). Place in the bottom of a pudding dish, sprinkle over them the sugar, a little nutmeg or cinnamon may be added if desired. Put the mixture over this, lifting the apples with a fork or spoon so as to let the mixture penetrate to the bottom of the pan. Bake in a moderately hot oven about 30 minutes. Serve with lemon sauce or thin custar

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PUDDING SAUCES.

PUDDING SAUCES.

Melt the butter and flour together, stir in the hot water, add the sugar and flavoring, cook until smooth and clear. Mix the flour and sugar together. Pour the boiling water upon it. Add the molasses and place on the range. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add the other ingredients; boil up once and serve. (Omit lemon if vinegar is used.) Beat the white of the egg to a stiff froth; then gradually beat into it the powdered sugar and cornstarch. Next add the yolk of the egg and beat well. Pour upon this the

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CAKE.

CAKE.

There are practically two kinds of cake, that made with butter, and cake made without butter. When these two methods are understood, cake making becomes easy. A few simple rules must govern all cake making. 1st. Regulate the heat. Cakes without butter require a quick oven; with butter, a moderate oven. 2nd. Beat whites and yolks separately. 3rd. Beat butter and sugar to a cream. 4th. Add the whites last. 5th. Currants should be cleaned, washed and dried and floured (to which flour some of the ba

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PASTRY.

PASTRY.

Pastry, unless light and tender, should never be eaten; even then it should be avoided by people with poor digestion. There are so many food preparations superior to pastry in both nutritive value and cost of time and material, that it will be wise to give it a very secondary place in the training of a culinary artist. However, as it is still a popular fancy with many, we may as well make the best of it. Butter is more wholesome in pastry than lard, although the latter makes a light crust. In or

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MISCELLANEOUS.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1 cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut the meat in small pieces and put in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown. Take the bones and hard tough parts left fr

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A FEW GENERAL HINTS.

A FEW GENERAL HINTS.

Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub between the hands. Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, c

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SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.

SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.

Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats. Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious, economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety of food—different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry—

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CARING FOR INVALIDS.

CARING FOR INVALIDS.

One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to avoid a draft—especially when airing the room. If the room is too small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this put a blanket while the room

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A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN.

A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN.

"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands, therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food must be abundant, and

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SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET.

SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET.

If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and butter. Dinner, which should al

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INFANTS' DIET.

INFANTS' DIET.

One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the foundation upon which the future physical structure is built. It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids, have this responsibility placed upon th

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PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS.

PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS.

During the last quarter of school work each pupil should submit a typical menu for breakfast, dinner and supper, allowing for a certain number of people. Consider the occupation, and give reasons for the choice of food for each meal. State how long it should take to prepare the meal, and give the cost. Insist upon variety in menus, and request the pupil to describe how the meal should be served. System , neatness and promptness should be especially emphasized. Clean table linen—no matter how coa

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CONSIDERATION OF MENUS.

CONSIDERATION OF MENUS.

The following menus and analyses are taken from bulletin No. 74, prepared in the United States Experiment Stations, and are inserted so as to give some idea of the cost and relative value of various foods in combination. It must be remembered that the prices given are in excess of prices in Ontario, therefore the cost per menu would be less than is given in these illustrations. The more expensive menus have been omitted. The writer of the article says:— "In planning a well balanced diet the foll

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SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.

In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility, etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent illustrations and comparisons should be made. Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attenti

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SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES.

SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES.

Lesson . Note .—After this each teacher must arrange lessons according to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving....

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APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof. Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City. The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school. The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season of the year. It should be noted

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