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BY GEORGE WILLIAM HUNTER, A.M. HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, DE WITT CLINTON HIGH SCHOOL, CITY OF NEW YORK. AUTHOR OF "ELEMENTS OF BIOLOGY," "ESSENTIALS OF BIOLOGY," ETC. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO Copyright, 1914, by GEORGE WILLIAM HUNTER. Copyright, 1914, in Great Britain. hunter, civic biology . w. p. 3 Dedicated to my FELLOW TEACHERS of the department of biology in the de witt clinton high school whose capable, earnest, unselfish and inspiring aid has made this bo
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FOREWORD TO TEACHERS
FOREWORD TO TEACHERS
A course in biology given to beginners in the secondary school should have certain aims. These aims must be determined to a degree, first, by the capabilities of the pupils, second, by their native interests, and, third, by the environment of the pupils. The boy or girl of average ability upon admission to the secondary school is not a thinking individual. The training given up to this time, with but rare exceptions, has been in the forming of simple concepts. These concepts have been reached di
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I. THE GENERAL PROBLEM—SOME REASONS FOR THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY
I. THE GENERAL PROBLEM—SOME REASONS FOR THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY
What is Biology? — Biology is the study of living beings, both plant and animal. Inasmuch as man is an animal, the study of biology includes the study of man in his relations to the plants and the animals which surround him. Most important of all is that branch of biology which treats of the mechanism we call the human body,—of its parts and their uses, and its repair. This subject we call human physiology . Why study Biology? —Although biology is a very modern science, it has found its way into
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II. THE ENVIRONMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
II. THE ENVIRONMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Problem. —To discover some of the factors of the environment of plants and animals. (a) Environment of a plant. (b) Environment of an animal. (c) Home environment of a girl or boy. Laboratory Suggestions Laboratory demonstrations. —Factors of the environment of a living plant or animal in the vivarium. Home exercise. —The study of the factors making up my own environment and how I can aid in their control. Environment. —Each one of us, no matter where he lives, comes in contact with certain surr
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III. THE INTERRELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
III. THE INTERRELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Problem. —To discover the general interrelations of green plants and animals. (a) Plants as homes for insects. (b) Plants as food for insects. (c) Insects as pollinating agents. Laboratory Suggestions A field trip :—Object: to collect common insects and study their general characteristics; to study the food and shelter relation of plant and insects. The pollination of flowers should also be carefully studied so as to give the pupil a general viewpoint as an introduction to the study of biology.
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IV. THE FUNCTIONS AND COMPOSITION OF LIVING THINGS
IV. THE FUNCTIONS AND COMPOSITION OF LIVING THINGS
Problems. —To discover the functions of living matter. (a) In a living plant. (b) In a living animal. Laboratory Suggestions Laboratory study of a living plant. —Any whole plant may be used; a weed is preferable. Laboratory demonstration or home study. —The functions of a living animal. Demonstration. —The growth of pollen tubes. Laboratory exercise. —The growth of the mature ovary into the fruit, e.g. bean or pea pod. A Living Plant and a Living Animal Compared. —A walk into the fields or any v
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V. PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITION. CAUSES OF GROWTH
V. PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITION. CAUSES OF GROWTH
Problem. —What causes a young plant to grow? (a) The relation of the young plant to its food supply. (b) The outside conditions necessary for germination. (c) What the young plant does with its food supply. (d) How a plant or animal is able to use its food supply. (e) How a plant or animal prepares food to use in various parts of the body. Laboratory Suggestions Laboratory exercise. —Examination of bean in pod. Examination and identification of parts of bean seed. Laboratory demonstration. —Test
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VI. THE ORGANS OF NUTRITION IN PLANTS—THE SOIL AND ITS RELATION TO THE ROOTS
VI. THE ORGANS OF NUTRITION IN PLANTS—THE SOIL AND ITS RELATION TO THE ROOTS
Problem. —What a plant takes from the soil and how it gets it. (a) What determines the direction of growth of roots? (b) How is the root built? (c) How does a root absorb water? (d) What is in the soil that a root might take out? (e) Why is nitrogen necessary, and how is it obtained? Laboratory Suggestions Demonstration .—Roots of bean or pea. Demonstration or home experiment .—Response of root to gravity and to water. What part of root is most responsive? Laboratory work .—Root hairs, radish or
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VII. PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITION—PLANTS MAKE FOOD
VII. PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITION—PLANTS MAKE FOOD
Problem. —Where, when, and how do green plants make food? (a) How and why is moisture given off from leaves? (b) What is the reaction of leaves to light? (c) What is made in green leaves in the sunlight? (d) What by-products are given off in the above process? (e) Other functions of leaves. Laboratory Suggestions Demonstration. —Water given off by plant in sunlight. Loss of weight due to transpiration measured. Laboratory exercise. — ( a ) Gross structure of a leaf. ( b ) Study of stoma and lowe
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VIII. PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITION—THE CIRCULATION AND FINAL USES OF FOOD BY PLANTS
VIII. PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITION—THE CIRCULATION AND FINAL USES OF FOOD BY PLANTS
Problem. —How green plants store and use the food they make. (a) What are the organs of circulation? (b) How and where does food circulate? (c) How does the plant assimilate its food? Laboratory Suggestions Laboratory exercise. —The structure (cross section) of a woody stem. Demonstration. —To show that food passes downward in the bark. Demonstration. —To show the condition of food passing through the stem. Demonstration. —Plants with special digestive organs. The Circulation and Final Uses of F
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IX. OUR FORESTS, THEIR USES AND THE NECESSITY FOR THEIR PROTECTION
IX. OUR FORESTS, THEIR USES AND THE NECESSITY FOR THEIR PROTECTION
Problem. —Man's relations to forests. (a) What is the value of forests to man? (b) What can man do to prevent forest destruction? Laboratory Suggestions Demonstration of some uses of wood. Optional exercise on structure of wood. Method of cutting determined by examination. Home work on study of furniture trim, etc. Visit to Museum to study some economic uses of wood. Visit to Museum or field trip to learn some common trees. A forest in North Carolina. (U. S. G. S.) The Economic Value of Trees. P
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X. THE ECONOMIC RELATION OF GREEN PLANTS TO MAN
X. THE ECONOMIC RELATION OF GREEN PLANTS TO MAN
Problems. —How green plants are useful to man. (a) As food . (b) For clothing . (c) Other uses . — How green plants are harmful to man. Suggested Laboratory Work If a commercial museum is available, a trip should be planned to work over the topics in this chapter. The school collection may well include most of the examples mentioned, both of useful and harmful plants. A study of weeds and poisonous plants should be taken up in actual laboratory work, either by collection and identification or by
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XI. PLANTS WITHOUT CHLOROPHYLL IN THEIR RELATION TO MAN
XI. PLANTS WITHOUT CHLOROPHYLL IN THEIR RELATION TO MAN
Problems. —(a) How molds and other saprophytic fungi do harm to man. (b) What yeasts do for mankind . (c) A study of bacteria with reference to (1) Conditions favorable and unfavorable to growth . (2) Their relations to mankind . (3) Some methods of fighting harmful bacteria and diseases caused by them. Laboratory Suggestions Field work. —Presence of bracket fungi and chestnut canker. Home experiment. —Conditions favorable to growth of mold. Laboratory demonstration. —Growth of mold, structure,
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XII. THE RELATIONS OF PLANTS TO ANIMALS
XII. THE RELATIONS OF PLANTS TO ANIMALS
Problems. —To determine the general biological relations existing between plants and animals. (a) As shown in a balanced aquarium. (b) As shown in hay infusion. Suggestions for Laboratory Work Demonstration of life in a "balanced" and "unbalanced" aquarium. —Determination of factors causing balance. Demonstration of hay infusion. —Examination to show forms of animal and plant life. Tabular comparison between balanced aquarium and hay infusion. Some Ways in which Plants affect Animals. —We have b
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XIII. SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS CONSIDERED AS ORGANISMS
XIII. SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS CONSIDERED AS ORGANISMS
Problems. —To determine: (a) How a one-celled animal is influenced by its environment. (b) How a single cell performs its functions. (c) The structure of a single-celled animal. Laboratory Suggestions Laboratory study. —Study of paramœcium under compound microscope in its relation to food, oxygen, etc. Determination of method of movement, turning, avoiding obstructions, sensitiveness to stimuli. Drawings to illustrate above points. Laboratory demonstration. —Living paramœcium to show structure o
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XIV. DIVISION OF LABOR. THE VARIOUS FORMS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
XIV. DIVISION OF LABOR. THE VARIOUS FORMS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Problems. —The development and forms of plants. The development of a simple animal. What is division of labor? In what does it result? How to know the chief characters of some great animal groups. Laboratory Suggestions A visit to a botanical garden or laboratory demonstration. —Some of the forms of plant life. Review of essential facts in development of bean or corn embryo. Demonstration. —Charts or models showing the development of a many-celled animal from egg through gastrula stage. Demonstr
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XV. THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS
XV. THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS
Problems.—I. To determine the uses of animals. (a) Indirectly as food. (b) Directly as food. (c) As domesticated animals. (d) For clothing. (e) Other direct economic uses. (f) Destruction of harmful plants and animals. II. To determine the harm done by animals. (a) Animals destructive to those used for food. (b) Animals harmful to crops and gardens. (c) Animals harmful to fruit and forest trees. (d) Animals destructive to stored food or clothing. (e) Animals indirectly or directly responsible fo
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XVI. THE FISH AND FROG, AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF VERTEBRATES
XVI. THE FISH AND FROG, AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF VERTEBRATES
Problems. — To determine how a fish and a frog are fitted for the life they lead. To determine some methods of development in vertebrate animals. (a) Fishes. (b) Frogs. (c) Other animals. Laboratory Suggestions Laboratory exercise. —Study of a living fish—adaptations for protection, locomotion, food getting, etc. Laboratory demonstration. —The development of the fish or frog egg. Visit to the aquarium. —Study of adaptations, economic uses of fishes, artificial propagation of fishes. Two Methods
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XVII. HEREDITY, VARIATION, PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING
XVII. HEREDITY, VARIATION, PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING
Problems. —To determine what makes the offspring of animals or plants tend to be like their parents. To determine what makes the offspring of animals and plants differ from their parents. To learn about some methods of plant and animal breeding. (a) By selection. (b) By hybridizing. (c) By other methods. To learn about some methods of improving the human race. (a) By eugenics. (b) By euthenics. Suggestions for Laboratory Work Laboratory exercise. —On variation and heredity among members of a cla
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XVIII. THE HUMAN MACHINE AND ITS NEEDS
XVIII. THE HUMAN MACHINE AND ITS NEEDS
Problem. —To obtain a general understanding of the parts and uses of the bodily machine. Laboratory Suggestions Demonstration. —Review to show that the human body is a complex of cells. Laboratory demonstration by means of ( a ) human skeleton and ( b ) manikin to show the position and gross structure of the chief organs of man. Man and his Environment. —In the last chapter we saw that one factor in the improvement of man lies in giving him better surroundings. It will be the purpose of the foll
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XIX. FOODS AND DIETARIES
XIX. FOODS AND DIETARIES
Problems. —A study of foods to determine:— (a) Their nutritive value. (b) The relation of work, environment, age, sex, and digestibility of foods to diet. (c) Their relative cheapness. (d) The daily Calorie requirement. (e) Food adulteration. (f) The relation of alcohol to the human system. Laboratory Suggestions Laboratory exercise. —Composition of common foods. The series of food charts supplied by the United States Department of Agriculture makes an excellent basis for a laboratory exercise t
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XX. DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
XX. DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Problems. —To determine where digestion takes place by examining :— (a) The functions of glands. (b) The work done in the mouth. (c) The work done in the stomach. (d) The work done in the small intestine. (e) The function of the liver. To discover the absorbing apparatus and how it is used. Laboratory Suggestions Demonstration of food tube of man (manikin).—Comparison with food tube of frog. Drawing (comparative) of food tube and digestive glands of frog and man. Demonstration of simple gland. —
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XXI. THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION
XXI. THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION
Problems. —To discover the composition and uses of the different parts of the blood. To find out the means by which the blood is circulated about the body. Laboratory Suggestions Demonstration. —Structure of blood, fresh frog's blood and human blood. Drawings. Demonstration. —Clotting of blood. Demonstration. —Use of models to demonstrate that the heart is a force pump. Demonstration. —Capillary circulation in web of frog's foot or tadpole's tail. Drawing. Home or laboratory exercise. —On relati
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XXII. RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION
XXII. RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION
Problems. —A study of respiration to find out :— (a) What changes in blood and air take place within the lungs. (b) The mechanics of respiration. A study of ventilation to discover :— (a) The reason for ventilation. (b) The best method of ventilation. A study of the organs of excretion. Laboratory Suggestions Demonstration. —Comparison of lungs of frog with those of bird or mammal. Experiment. —The changes of blood within the lungs. Experiment. —Changes taking place in air in the lungs. Experime
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XXIII. BODY CONTROL AND HABIT FORMATION
XXIII. BODY CONTROL AND HABIT FORMATION
Problems. —How is body control maintained? (a) What is the mechanism of direction and control? (b) What is the method of direction and control? (c) What are habits? How are they formed and how broken? (d) What are the organs of sense? What are their uses? (e) How does alcohol affect the nervous system? Laboratory Suggestions Demonstration. —Sensory motor reactions. Demonstration. —Nervous system. Models and frog dissections. Demonstration. —Neurones under compound microscope (optional). Demonstr
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XXIV. MAN'S IMPROVEMENT OF HIS ENVIRONMENT
XXIV. MAN'S IMPROVEMENT OF HIS ENVIRONMENT
Problems. —How may we improve our home conditions of living? How may we help improve our conditions at school? How does the city care for the improvement of our environment? (a) In inspection of buildings, etc. (b) In inspection of food supplies. (c) In inspection of milk. (d) In care of water supplies. (e) In disposal of wastes. (f) In care of public health. Laboratory Suggestions Home exercise. —How to ventilate my bedroom. Demonstration. —Effect of use of duster and damp cloth upon bacteria i
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XXV. SOME GREAT NAMES IN BIOLOGY
XXV. SOME GREAT NAMES IN BIOLOGY
If we were to attempt to group the names associated with the study of biology, we would find that in a general way they were connected either with discoveries of a purely scientific nature or with the benefiting of man's condition by the application of the purely scientific discoveries. The first group are necessary in a science in order that the second group may apply their work. It was necessary for men like Charles Darwin or Gregor Mendel to prove their theories before men like Luther Burbank
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX
A SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR BIOLOGY BEGINNING IN THE FALL LIST OF TOPICS First Term First week. Why study Biology ? Relation to human health, hygiene. Relations existing between plants and animals. Relation of bacteria to man. Uses of plants and animals. Conservation of plants and animals. Relation to life of citizen in the city. Plants and animals in relation to their environment. What is the environment; light, heat, water, soil, food, etc. What plants take out of the environment. What animals tak
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WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND TEMPERATURES
WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND TEMPERATURES
As the metric system of weights and measures and the Centigrade measurement of temperatures are employed in scientific work, the following tables showing the English equivalents of those in most frequent use are given for the convenience of those not already familiar with these standards. The values given are approximate only, but will answer for all practical purposes. The next table gives the Fahrenheit equivalent for every tenth degree Centigrade from absolute zero to the boiling point of wat
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