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Excavations at the LoDaisKa Site in the Denver, Colorado, Area
Excavations at the LoDaisKa Site in the Denver, Colorado, Area
by H. J. and C. C. Irwin Supplementary Reports by W. C. Galinat, C. B. Hunt, G. E. Lewis, R. Rodden, D. R. Whitehead THE DENVER MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Denver, Colorado Proceedings, No. 8 October 1, 1959 LITHOGRAPHED BY THE PEERLESS PRINTING COMPANY DENVER, COLORADO Figure 1 —Area of Study....
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Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
This report, like most archaeological publications, was made possible only through the contributions and cooperation of many individuals. It is difficult to thank them all adequately. Our greatest debt is to the editor of this publication, H. M. Wormington. She has provided an incalculable amount of information and assistance. More important, however, we have had the advantage of her knowledge and experience and have profited endlessly from her suggestions and criticisms. Without her guidance an
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TABLES
TABLES
Courtesy U.S. Geological Survey Figure 2 —Topography of the Morrison Area, just north of Site (Looking North). Center, Dakota Sandstone (Hogback). Left of center, light colored broken rocks, Fountain Sandstone. Left, Rocky Mountain Foothills....
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History of Investigation
History of Investigation
The foothills of the Rocky Mountains, although readily accessible, are archaeologically almost unknown. Geographically they lie between two culture areas—the Desert Culture of the Great Basin to the west and the Plains cultures to the east. Environmentally the region preserves a special character unlike either the Basin or the Plains. The area around the town of Morrison, Colorado, some fifteen miles west of Denver, seemed to offer unusual potentialities for archaeological investigation because
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Physiography
Physiography
The LoDaisKa Site is located beneath an outcrop of Fountain Sandstone, about a mile south of Morrison, on the ranch of Otto Sanger. Physiographically the Morrison area is part of the Southern Rocky Mountain Province. Broad elevated strips of granite, running north and south, are flanked by dipping sedimentary rocks. The latter are generally lower and form foothills. Both once formed continuous anticlinal structures, now deeply eroded (Fenneman, 1931). The granite masses are usually mountainous,
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Fauna and Flora of the Region
Fauna and Flora of the Region
The Morrison area as a floral biome is characterized by its transitional nature, from the plains to the east and the mountains to the west. Harrington (1954) has designated the environment as the Mountain Shrub Subdivision of the Mountain and Plateau Area. Especially characteristic of the zone are the following plants: From the Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Subdivision the following characteristic plants overlap: These distinctive plants have invaded from the prairie fringe: The nature of the fauna
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Description of the Site
Description of the Site
The rockshelter itself is now a moderately large overhang, measuring some 40 feet in width and 15 feet in depth. As Fig. 6 indicates, the ceiling slopes upward rapidly and only the inner yard or so is completely protected from rain or drizzle. When first inhabited, the floor of sand and gravel sloped up to the mouth (west), and presumably continued into the flat valley outside. At the time of excavation, however, the surface sloped to the north. This difference appears to have been due to the co
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Method of Excavation (Fig. 4)
Method of Excavation (Fig. 4)
In preparation for excavation, a vertical rod was driven in the southern sector and the datum point established twenty inches above the ground surface at this spot. A second stake was located on a north-south line from the first (using magnetic north) at the opposite end of the shelter. A horizontal line connecting these stakes at the level of the datum point was considered the baseline. The area of the rock shelter to be excavated was then laid out in one yard squares. Letters were assigned to
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Preliminary Discussion of the Stratigraphy
Preliminary Discussion of the Stratigraphy
The method and objectives of this monograph can best be understood in relation to the nature of the stratigraphic situation. Therefore, it appears desirable to present first a basic and unelaborated view of the stratigraphy which will be discussed more fully later. As shown in Figs. 9 , 10 , 11 and 12 , there were four levels of natural stratigraphy. When excavation of the test trench and adjoining pits was finished, it appeared that only the lowest could be correlated with any single culture. H
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Objectives of the Monograph
Objectives of the Monograph
The bulk of the present monograph will be devoted to a description of the cultural remains uncovered at the LoDaisKa Site, and delineation of the circumstances of their discovery. However, an accumulation of facts loses much of its significance if no attempt at organization and interpretation is made. “The archaeologist must make some effort to integrate as well as observe his material, or he becomes a technician rather than a scientist.” (Heizer, 1958). It is realized that cultural units must b
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Hearths (Fig. 13)
Hearths (Fig. 13)
Eleven hearths were found; they may be characterized briefly as follows: Hearth A. Location: south edge square P8-9, top 36 inches below baseline. Simple pit excavated into underlying soil, filled with charcoal and ash, seven inches deep and ten inches in diameter. Hearth B. Location: center at axis of lines 0 and 8-9, top 56 inches below baseline. Concentration of charcoal and ash, no pit, nine inches thick, eight inches wide and 13 inches long. Hearth C. Location: square L9, top 48 inches belo
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Cists (Fig. 14)
Cists (Fig. 14)
Three features encountered were termed cists. All were located in the rear of the shelter in the center section. All were flat-bottomed basins dug into the sand underlying the Piney Creek alluvium ( see C. B. Hunt’s report below ). Around the sides of these were set small rocks with more or less flat surfaces. Within Cists A and C were found remains of seeds. Cist A. Location: square J11, top 102 inches below baseline. Almost circular, inside diameter at top 14 inches, bottom eight inches. Five
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Method
Method
One often notices an emphasis on projectile points in archaeological reports, especially in studies of non-ceramic or pre-ceramic cultures. Archaeology as a historical science must integrate all the data with their own context and with events which preceded and followed. In searching for data that provide such chronological and geographical correlation (e.g. horizon styles in the sense of Willey and Phillips), there are certain basic needs. Though any cultural element could be used in correlatio
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SCRAPERS
SCRAPERS
The end scrapers are divisible into three categories. The first form is a flat scraper, generally triangular to oval in outline. The working end is often thin. There are a few true snub-nosed scrapers in this category. The second type is generally fan-shaped with a wide thin bit. The opposite end usually tapers to a sharp edge which could have had secondary use as a cutting tool. The third variety includes rougher forms, though there are a few well made specimens. All have a distinct keel. There
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Spoke-shaves (Figs. 37, 39)
Spoke-shaves (Figs. 37, 39)
Two artifacts are designated spoke-shaves. One is combined with a perforator; the other is made from a large flake. Both exhibit simple steep flaking. The working surfaces are arcs of about 100° on small circles, ½ inch in diameter....
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Drills (Fig. 38)
Drills (Fig. 38)
Though only five specimens were recovered that can be classified as drills, they comprise four types. The first, represented by one specimen, is of the expanding base T-shaped variety. The base is flattened and the point is diamond-shaped in cross-section; the flakes were struck from either side to meet in the middle and form the central ridge. The second type, possibly a variant of the first, comprises two specimens, one fragmentary. The bases expand but are thick and irregular, rather than fla
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Perforators (Figs. 38, 39)
Perforators (Figs. 38, 39)
Twenty-one specimens are considered to have been used as awls or perforators. Though individual form varies greatly, most are made on plano-convex or concavo-convex flakes. Flaking is concentrated on the short point, though it sometimes extends further on one or both faces. Occasionally, one or more of the edges have seen secondary use as a scraper. Of the total, nine specimens are of flinty material, one of obsidian. The remainder are quartzite (8) or quartz (3). They range in length from ¾ to
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“Gravers” (Fig. 38)
“Gravers” (Fig. 38)
The term “graver” is not especially desirable since 1) it implies function, and 2) it is generally applied to a special form associated with the Upper Paleolithic of Europe. Nevertheless, the term is also used in connection with sharp-pointed flakes employed in making incisions, and as such is well entrenched in the literature. These tools were divided into two categories. The first contains 16 specimens. These were all made from irregular flakes, the largest 1⅜ × 1⅛ the smallest ¾ × ½. There ar
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Prismatic Flakes (Figs. 40 and 41)
Prismatic Flakes (Figs. 40 and 41)
Of the total number of flakes recovered certain appeared technologically distinctive and were classified as prismatic. The primary characteristics of these are a length exceeding twice the width, a striking platform at one end with a small bulb of percussion and ripple marks radiating from it. In addition, most of these exhibit a longitudinal ridge or ridges formed by facets intersecting at a low angle, representing the intersection of former flake scars. Most of the striking platforms are plain
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Choppers or Hammerstones (Fig. 42)
Choppers or Hammerstones (Fig. 42)
Forty-one implements are classified as choppers or hammerstones. Seventy percent of these are of rock quartz, 20 percent of a metamorphic rock, usually schist, and 10 percent of a grainy quartzite. Due to the nature of the material it is extremely difficult to determine whether such artifacts were used primarily as hammerstones or choppers. There are no small round heavily battered specimens which could be considered as hammerstones only. The pieces usually exhibit one sharp edge and one or more
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Cores
Cores
Only eight specimens are considered to have been cores. Three are of quartzite, three of agate and two of fossilized wood. The largest is about 3 × 3 × 2 inches, the smallest about a one inch cube. All are irregular, none fluted or prismatic. Since there were so few cores it is believed that the primary work of preparing flakes took place elsewhere, perhaps at the source of the material. Figure 42 — Choppers and hammerstones, ½ actual size. Artifacts exclusive of projectile points and ground sto
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Milling Stones (Figs. 43, 44, 45)
Milling Stones (Figs. 43, 44, 45)
Characteristics of grinding stones at LoDaisKa are largely summarized in Tables III and IV. These are presented in the hope that future studies will make it possible to distinguish cultural associations from such tools, although as Haury (1950) and Jennings (1957) reiterated, metates or grinding stones are often so nondescript as to defy cultural interpretation. Dealing for the most part with complete examples, there seem to be two general types: large worn boulders, and flat slabs often with a
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Handstones (Fig. 46)
Handstones (Fig. 46)
One hundred and four specimens are classed as handstones or handstone fragments. Of these 50 could not be classified further except that 40 were of igneous rock and 10 of sandstone. The general data pertaining to handstones is summarized in the chart. The largest of these is 8 × 4 inches, the smallest 4 × 3 inches. All appear to have been used in one hand. Seventy-five percent are made of igneous rock, usually of a metamorphic type such as schist. This choice was probably due to the scarcity of
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TABLE IV
TABLE IV
Grinding Slabs, Fragmentary Specimens Handstones Figure 43 — Large milling stones. Above, granite. Below, sandstone. Figure 44 — Flat granite milling stone. Figure 45 — Sandstone milling slabs, ½ actual size. Above, flat without depression. 1 inch thick. Below, with depression. Figure 46 — Handstones. A-B, four-plane. ½ actual size....
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Shaft-smoother
Shaft-smoother
One shaft-smoother was found, with lengthwise grooves on both faces. The lower is very shallow; the upper is clearly formed, and measures ³/₁₆-⁴/₁₆ inches wide and ⅛ inch deep ( see Fig. 47 )....
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Pigment Stones (Fig. 48)
Pigment Stones (Fig. 48)
Eleven objects are classified as pigment stones. Four are lumps of red ochre. There is no proof that they were used for paint, but as Coon (1950) has noted, the use of some sort of paint is practically universal among primitive people. The largest weighs about three ounces, the smallest about two. Three pieces of yellow ochre were found. One is a great lump weighing about two pounds. The other two are flat ground palettes, slightly irregular, one about 1 × 2, the other 3 × 4 inches and both abou
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BONE ARTIFACTS
BONE ARTIFACTS
There are numerous tubular beads of bird and small mammal bones. These range in length from 1⅜ inches to ½ inch; most are of the shorter variety. Apparently the bone was polished and prepared, then a groove or series of grooves was cut, the sections broken out, and the ends smoothed. Two lower canine teeth, (one of badger, taxidea , the other unidentified), were evidently used as ornaments. Both show a lustrous polish. At the end of the root a small groove, or series of parallel incisions, was c
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Problematical Objects (Fig. 51)
Problematical Objects (Fig. 51)
There are four stones of problematical use. Three of these have the form of an isosceles triangle. The two smallest measure about ½ inch on a side. Perhaps these were gaming counters or ornaments. The larger piece is about 1¾ inch on a side with one broken corner, and has 2 small notches on either side of the apex. This was very probably a pendant. The fourth specimen in this class is more or less oval, very thin, with ground edges. It is about 1½ inches long and may have been an ornament or gam
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POTTERY
POTTERY
Plain pottery includes one restorable bowl and eight additional sherds. Construction is hard to determine from so small a number of sherds, but indications suggest coiling and scraping. Coils were fairly wide ( see Fig. 60 ). Core color is usually grey to black though one sherd is oxidized to a brick red. Firing was done in a “reducing atmosphere”, with some scattered spots oxidized. The temper is angular with occasional mica fragments visible; it is probably crushed granite. Some sherds may con
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Geology of the LoDaisKa Site[2]
Geology of the LoDaisKa Site[2]
By Chas. B. Hunt The LoDaisKa (Sanger) Site, about a mile and half south of Morrison, Colorado, is a rockshelter under a projecting ledge of Paleozoic (Pennsylvanian) sandstone that dips steeply east. The pre-ceramic occupation layers at this site are believed to correlate with the Piney Creek alluvium ( Hunt, 1954, p. 114 ). The accompanying map ( Fig. 66 ) illustrates the general geologic setting of the site; it shows the general distribution of one upper Pleistocene and two Recent units. The
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Introduction
Introduction
Mechanical and chemical analyses of the deposits of the LoDaisKa Site were made in an attempt to establish whether or not any paleosols or ancient weathered zones were present. No clear profile development could be observed in the field and it was hoped that laboratory analysis might confirm this impression. The occurrence of such features might serve for correlation between sites in the area and aid in interpreting the paleoclimatic and geomorphic history of the deposits (Miller and Leopold, 19
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Sampling
Sampling
Samples for laboratory analysis were collected from two different parts of the site. Those upon which most of the present conclusions are based were taken in continuous two-inch intervals down a vertical face in Square M11 ( see Figs. 7 and 10 ), very near the back wall of the rockshelter. They were not collected until after much of the site had been excavated and it was only near the rear wall that a relatively complete section could be obtained. Rodents had disturbed the upper levels and only
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TABLE VIa
TABLE VIa
Particle-size fractions, in millimeters; expressed in percent of total weight of sample. Distribution (weight percent) of particle-size fractions for samples from Square M11, LoDaisKa site. Samples taken in continuous two-inch intervals from 38 inches below baseline. Particle-size fractions, in millimeters; expressed in percent of total weight of sample Distribution (weight percent) of particle-size fractions for samples from Square J8, LoDaisKa site. Samples taken in continuous six-inch interva
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Results and Discussion
Results and Discussion
The two levels represented in the section from M11 extend over the whole area of excavation and make up most of the deposits of the site. A late Pleistocene bouldery gravel, with which is included some variegated silty and clayey alluvium, is separated from the overlying dark-colored sandy and silty “alluvium” by a definite erosional break representing an unknown interval of time (Hunt, this report). There is a higher red sand layer and a younger bed of dusty brown fill which is found just below
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Plant Remains from the LoDaisKa Site
Plant Remains from the LoDaisKa Site
By Walton C. Galinat (Below Dr. Galinat has identified key specimens from the site from which data table was completed). Authors’ Comments on Floral Remains It is interesting to note the following uses of some of these plants by modern Indians in the general area. For further information see: Chamberlain, 1911; Train, Henricks, and Archer, 1941; P. A. Vestal, 1952, P. A. Vestal, 1940 and the bibliographies appended to these works. Authors’ Comments on Maize from LoDaisKa Six specimens of Zea may
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Table VIII—Floral Remains
Table VIII—Floral Remains
Figure 69 —Floral Remains. Figure 70 —Floral Remains. Maize ( Zea mays ) was originally thought to have descended from teosinte, ( Euchlaena ), a wild plant occurring in Mexico. Now however, most authorities believe that a primitive maize originated as a distinct plant. (Mangelsdorf and Reeves, 1939). Teosinte, according to their hypothesis is a later hybrid of maize and its distant relative, Tripsacum . (A common species of Tripsacum is Gama grass.) Pollen studies of deep cores taken in Mexico
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Introduction
Introduction
A preliminary pollen analytical investigation has been attempted on material from the LoDaisKa Site in order to determine the feasibility of working with such sediments, and to see what culturally significant plants might be represented. Due to the extremely poor preservation in all but the lowermost levels no pollen diagram has been prepared. Such a diagram would be misleading, because many of the original constituents of the pollen flora might have been destroyed by differential degradation. A
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Techniques
Techniques
All samples were prepared by boiling for six minutes in 10% KOH, washing with 10% HCI to remove carbonates, boiling for ten minutes in about 30% HF, actolysing for one minute, staining with fuchsin, and mounting in silicone oil. For each sample a total of four slides was counted by making traverses at one millimeter intervals....
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Identification of Large Grass Pollen
Identification of Large Grass Pollen
In order to attempt an identification of the various large grass pollen encountered, the long axis of each grain and the pore diameter (including annulus) were measured, and the ratio between the two plotted. Barghoorn, Wolfe, and Clisby (1954) have suggested that this ratio can be used to supplement size measurements in attempting to identify fossil pollen of the tribe Maydeae. However, one can not compare directly the size data from the LoDaisKa fossils with the data from modern pollen assembl
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Sampling (Author’s Note)
Sampling (Author’s Note)
The provenience of the samples analyzed below is as follows: All samples were taken at 6 inch intervals. Samples W 1-10 were collected in Square J8, starting at 38 inches below baseline. Samples E₁ 1-6 were collected in Square M11, starting at 38 inches below baseline. Samples E₂ 3-7 were collected in Square P 9-10, starting at 62 inches below baseline. Samples E₁ 1 - E₁ 5 (38-68″) Preservation extremely poor, only badly corroded pine pollen, a few Compositae grains, and many plant fragments (mo
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Discussion
Discussion
It is interesting to note that many of the plants identified from their megascopic remains by Walton C. Galinat are likewise represented in the pollen flora (e.g., Allium , Quercus , Juniperus and chenopods). As Galinat has also identified several fragments of Zea Mays , it was hoped that pollen of Zea might be found in some of the oldest levels. Unfortunately, none of the fossil grass pollen can be definitely identified as that of Zea . It seems obvious that the three largest grass grains (over
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On the Ethnology of the Ute
On the Ethnology of the Ute
The Ute were among the first Indians to get horses from the Spanish. Subsequently they moved about rather freely and were rather quick to adopt the white man’s culture whenever this was present in their area. There are almost no early accounts of the Ute. They had neither the spectacular aspects of the true Plains Indians, nor lands close to the trails frequented by pioneers and early explorers. On the other hand, they did not enjoy the isolation of many of the Great Basin tribes which preserved
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On the Ethnology of the Pawnee
On the Ethnology of the Pawnee
The Pawnee of Nebraska are commonly regarded as characteristic of the semi-sedentary agricultural peoples of the Central Plains. However, ethnographic material about them is surprisingly sparse. Because they already had the horse by the late 17th century there is no record of them in completely aboriginal conditions. The most complete work is a monograph by J. B. Dunbar published in 1880, based on a series of articles in the Magazine of American History . Besides this there are the early account
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DATING THE LoDaisKa REMAINS
DATING THE LoDaisKa REMAINS
Willey and Phillips (1958) have pointed out the difficulty and illogicality of attempting to date artifacts exclusively by their affiliation. Of course, if distinct horizon-markers such as special forms of pottery are present, perhaps the technique is warranted. The remains at the LoDaisKa Site do not contain any such limited horizon markers. Moreover, dating of much of the associated materials in adjoining areas has, unfortunately, not progressed far enough to establish chronological limits for
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Culture Complex A
Culture Complex A
The authors believe culture Complex A is related to what has been termed the Fremont Culture of western Colorado and eastern Utah. Complex A appears to manifest itself between the surface (the erosional surface below a cow dung layer) and 44-48 inches below baseline. Complex A and the Fremont culture have a number of similarities. Foremost among these is pottery. All the plainware found is assignable to this complex. Although the total number of sherds is not large, one restorable vessel is repr
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Culture Complex B
Culture Complex B
The culture complex represented between roughly 24 and 53 inches below baseline appears to be a manifestation of the Woodland Culture, Orleans Aspect. The authors excavated several single component sites of this manifestation in the area (Irwin and Irwin, n.d.). The following artifacts, occurring in these sites and also in this depth range at LoDaisKa, appear characteristic of the culture: cordmarked pottery, corner-notched projectile points similar to those in Fig. 75 , end scrapers, drills, sm
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Complex C
Complex C
Cultural Complex C occurs primarily between the depths of 50 to 72 inches below baseline. The definition is based on the occurrence of a cluster of traits similar to those found in a previously defined unmixed culture. A certain amount of the apparent overlap is due to the telescoped nature of the stratigraphy, which aggravates the effects of trampling and other disturbances. It is not possible on the basis of the available evidence to determine the relationship of Complex C to those traits whic
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Complex D
Complex D
The authors believe that the culture (Complex D) represented at LoDaisKa from 55 inches below baseline to the top of the late Wisconsin Alluvium (erosional surface), is a manifestation of the Desert Culture as described by Jennings (Jennings and Norbeck, 1955; Jennings, 1957). This exists in its purest form below 72 inches but there is a persistence of some forms during the beginning of Complex C. Certain types characteristic of the complex continue above 55 inches; they occur, however, in dimin
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Other Remains
Other Remains
Just within sands and gravels attributed by Hunt to Late or Post-Wisconsin outwash, one fragmentary point and a few flakes were found. Some charcoal, ash and burned bone occurred at the same level, extending in a lens about 2 inches lower. The point appears to the authors to be the basal section of what might be called morphologically a Plainview point (Krieger, in Sellards, Evans and Meade, 1947). Flaking was parallel. Another parallel-flaked point of a similar type was found higher up in the f
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Traditions at LoDaisKa
Traditions at LoDaisKa
Willey and Phillips (1958) have stated that traditions are culture elements extending over long periods of time and often transgressing various culture boundaries present in an area. Traditions are not horizon-markers but may serve to unify a given series of occupations in a locality (e.g. painted pottery is a tradition in the Southwest.) At LoDaisKa there are few such distinctive elements that transgress cultural periods other than rather common functional tools such as scrapers, but these few
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The Site in a Larger Context
The Site in a Larger Context
Placed in a larger context, the sequence at LoDaisKa seems to reflect the interaction of geographical, cultural and environmental factors. Their relation poses a series of interesting questions. The region is located geographically on the fringe between two well-known culture areas, the Great Basin and the Plains. At the same time, it is environmentally distinct from either, combining some characteristics of each, while preserving its own sub-montane biome. These factors determine the essentiall
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANDERSON, E. 1948 Racial Identity of the Corn from Castle Park. In Burgh and Scoggin, the Archaeology of Castle Park Dinosaur National Monument. Univ. of Colorado Series in Anthropology, No. 2. Boulder. 1954 Personal communication in Wormington. A Reappraisal of the Fremont Culture. Denver Museum of Natural History Proceedings, No. 1. Denver. ANTEVS, E. 1955 Geologic-climatic Dating in the West. American Antiquity, Vol. 20, No. 4, Part 1, pp. 3, 17, 35. Salt Lake City. BARBER, E. A. 1876 Languag
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