44 chapters
11 hour read
Selected Chapters
44 chapters
PREFACE
PREFACE
The limits as to length imposed upon me by the Editor of the Series forced me to adopt one of two alternatives. I had either to content myself with a very slight sketch of the whole of European History during the period, or I had to exercise some principle of selection. Unwilling to do over again that which has already been well done by Mr. Lodge in his History of Modern Europe , I have fallen back on the second alternative, and confined myself to the greater Powers of Western Europe. Nor is suc
58 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION
PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION
I have only to thank my critics, and especially Mr. Armstrong and Mr. Fotheringham, for many helpful suggestions. Oxford , Jan. 1903 ....
8 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
N.B. —The Clarendon Press Maps, with Notes, can be purchased separately, the Spruner without Notes. A chronological summary will be found in Hassall, Handbook of European History . N.B. —The Clarendon Press Maps, with Notes, can be purchased separately, the Spruner without Notes. A chronological summary will be found in Hassall, Handbook of European History ....
12 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The division of history into periods may be very misleading if its true purport be not understood. One age can no more be isolated from the universal course of history True meaning of the division of History into Periods. than one generation from another. The ideas, the principles, the aims of man change indeed, but change slowly, and in their very change are the outcome of the past. The old generation melts into the new, as the night melts into the day. None the less, just as the night differs
4 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 1. The Expedition of Charles VIII.
§ 1. The Expedition of Charles VIII.
At the date of the Italian expedition, Charles VIII. had been eleven years on the throne of France. The monarchy to which he succeeded was, perhaps, less controlled by constitutional checks than any other in Europe. The crown had earned popularity as the leader in the struggle against the English—a struggle which had created the French nation; and as the patron of the middle classes against the feudal nobles. The Estates-General, the deliberative assembly of the kingdom, had never succeeded in
32 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 2. Savonarola and Florence.
§ 2. Savonarola and Florence.
A month after the death of Charles VIII. , the Friar Savonarola, who had done so much to give an air of mystery to the Italian expedition, fell a victim to his enemies. This remarkable man was born at Ferrara in 1452. Having gradually won a reputation as a preacher of wonderful power and zeal, he was in the year 1491, elected Prior Savonarola, Prior of San Marco, 1491. of the Dominican Convent of San Marco in Florence. In spite of the independent attitude which he here assumed, Lorenzo showed h
12 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 3. Louis XII. The War of Milan and Naples.
§ 3. Louis XII. The War of Milan and Naples.
The accession of Louis XII. was popular. He had in his earlier years led the opposition against Anne of Beaujeu, and for that had suffered imprisonment, but of late he Internal policy of Louis XII. had been the loyal supporter of King Charles. Careless and fond of pleasure as a young man, he had, while retaining his generous and chivalrous spirit, now become more serious. Declaring at his accession that ‘the King did not remember the wrongs done to him as Duke,’ he showed favour to Anne of Beau
24 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 4. Alexander VI. and Cæsar Borgia.
§ 4. Alexander VI. and Cæsar Borgia.
While the struggle between the French and Spaniards was being decided in Naples, events of importance to Italy and Europe were happening in the centre of the Peninsula. Alexander VI. and the Romagna. Need of French help in his designs on the Romagna had been the motive of Alexander’s alliance with Louis XII. at the date of the Milanese expedition. To the realisation of these schemes he and his son now eagerly turned. The Romagna, once the old Exarchate of Ravenna, a district of somewhat indeter
11 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 5. The League of Cambray.
§ 5. The League of Cambray.
The pretext for the invasion of Italy by France and Spain had been the necessity of securing a base of operations for a crusade against the Turk. This had been prevented by the quarrel of the robbers over their spoil. They were now to prove by their attack on Venice—the only power which had seriously attempted to check the Moslem advance—that the idea, even if ever seriously entertained, had been definitely abandoned. The hostility with which that republic was viewed by the rest of Italy dates f
28 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 1. France.
§ 1. France.
The most important events in the internal history of France during the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. have already been mentioned. Internal condition of France. The nation, engaged in war abroad, enjoyed peace at home. The nobles, reduced in number, found, in the Italian wars, satisfaction for their ambition, and did not disturb the country with their feuds. Under the administration of the Cardinal, Georges d’Amboise, the minister of Louis XII. (1498–1510), the country prospered. Popu
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 2. Spain.
§ 2. Spain.
By the accession of Isabella to the throne of Castile in 1474, and of her husband, Ferdinand the Catholic, to that of Aragon in 1479, not only did these two countries escape from a long period of internal anarchy, Union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon. but the rivalry hitherto existing between Castile and Aragon was put an end to, and, while the autonomy of the two governments was preserved, the policy which guided them was one. In their determination to increase the power of the crown at ho
22 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 3. Germany.
§ 3. Germany.
The history of Germany during the period we have covered (1494–1519), comprises almost exactly the reign of the Emperor Maximilian I. Internal history of Germany during the reign of Maximilian, 1493–1519. Elected King of the Romans during the lifetime of his father, Frederick III. , he had of late practically controlled affairs, and, on Frederick’s death in 1493, he quietly succeeded him. Our attention throughout the reign must be mainly directed to a consideration of those attempted reforms o
18 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 1. The Imperial Election.
§ 1. The Imperial Election.
On the death of Maximilian in January 1519, the destinies of Europe fell into the hands of three young Monarchs, all of them of marked individuality and of great ambition. The three candidates for the Imperial throne. Of these Henry VIII. , now in his twenty-eighth year, was the eldest. The profound impression made on foreigners by his personal appearance is probably in part to be attributed to the fairness of his complexion, always much admired on the Continent; but although in after-life he b
12 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 2. The Revolt of the Comuneros
§ 2. The Revolt of the Comuneros
The troubles in Spain had commenced immediately on the death of Ferdinand. In spite of the temporary success which had accompanied the policy of that King and his consort, Discontent in Spain. the work of consolidation was by no means complete. Not only were the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon independent of each other, but even Valencia and Catalonia, although dependencies of Aragon, had their separate Cortes and characteristic institutions. This outward variety of constitutional machinery was b
12 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 3. The Diet of Worms, 1521.
§ 3. The Diet of Worms, 1521.
Charles had been forced to let the revolt of the ‘comuneros’ in Spain run its course because of the serious problems in which he was involved by his position as an Austrian Prince and as Emperor. The Diet of Worms. Jan. 1521. After his interview with Henry VIII. at Gravelines in the beginning of July, he had passed on to Germany to be crowned. Partly owing to need of money, partly because of an outbreak of the plague at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), this was delayed till October, and it was not til
23 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 4. The War, 1522–1523.
§ 4. The War, 1522–1523.
At this moment the attention of Charles was directed to the war against Francis. The humiliation of his rival, and the conquest of Italy, were the first essentials; till these were attained, the affair of Luther might wait. The French had been the first to assume the offensive. Already, in May, they had invaded Navarre, while in the previous March, Robert de la Marck, the Lord of Bouillon, had attacked Luxembourg. These expeditions, however, had both failed, and Charles now secured the alliance,
7 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 5. Luther and the Council of Regency.
§ 5. Luther and the Council of Regency.
The absence of Charles in Spain, where he remained for seven momentous years (July 1522 to August 1529), indicates most forcibly where his real interests lay. Cruelly as he treated all those who had taken part in the revolt of the Communeros, he had, since the death of Chièvres in 1521, become a thorough Spaniard in sympathy. In that year, he finally ceded to Ferdinand the Austrian lands of his House, and henceforth looked on Spain as the real centre of his Empire. Charles in Spain for seven yea
9 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 6. The Victory of Pavia.
§ 6. The Victory of Pavia.
Charles had hoped much from the election of Clement VII. But he forgot that he had to deal with a Medici. Charles disappointed in his hopes of support from Clement VII. The aim of Clement was to further the interests of the Papal States, and of his House in Florence, whither he had sent as governor Alessandro, the young son of his cousin Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, under the tutelage of the Cardinal of Cortona. To attain these ends he, like Leo. X. , hoped to balance the powers of Francis and Cha
5 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 7. The Peasants’ War.
§ 7. The Peasants’ War.
While these momentous issues were being decided in Italy, Germany had been the scene of a serious outbreak which threatened the whole structure of society. Causes of the Peasants’ War. The causes of the Peasants’ Revolt were primarily social. Even before the appearance of Luther, we hear of the ‘Bundschuhe’ and other organisations of the peasants, and of revolts against their lords. Their grievances were those common to the villein class in all feudal societies; heavy services and dues, oppressi
6 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 1. Treaty of Madrid and League of Cognac.
§ 1. Treaty of Madrid and League of Cognac.
Charles maintained the same imperturbable composure at the news of his good fortune as he had displayed in the days when defeat seemed to stare him in the face. Behaviour and difficulties of Charles after the victory of Pavia. He forbade all public rejoicing. He attributed all to God, and protested that his only desire was for a lasting peace, so that he might turn the arms of Christendom against the Turk. But he had before asserted that the only hope of peace lay in the submission of France, an
24 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 2. Progress of the Reformation in Germany.
§ 2. Progress of the Reformation in Germany.
In the midst of the troubles of the Italian campaign, and in the face of the hostility of the Pope, any decisive action against the Reformers had been out of the question. It was at least necessary to procrastinate. The Diet of Spires, Aug. 1526, and the Recess. Accordingly, at the Diet of Spires (Aug. 1526), the Emperor had promised, through his representatives, that a General Council should be summoned, but that, meanwhile, the penal clauses of the Edict of Worms should be enforced. At the sam
12 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 3. European complications and the fortunes of the Protestants, from 1532 to the Treaty of Crespi.
§ 3. European complications and the fortunes of the Protestants, from 1532 to the Treaty of Crespi.
At no time during the career of Charles V. are the contradictions and difficulties which surrounded him better illustrated than during the period from 1532 to the Treaty of Crespi. The European complications of Charles. Had his claims been less extensive he might have been more successful; but the very magnificence of his pretensions prevented the complete realisation of any one of them. As head of the Holy Roman Empire, it was his duty to defend the unity of the Church, to put down heresy, and
19 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 1. The Schmalkaldic War and the battle of Mühlberg.
§ 1. The Schmalkaldic War and the battle of Mühlberg.
On the signature of the Peace of Crespi, the hands of the Emperor were at last free to deal with the Protestants in Germany. Charles at last free to deal with the Protestants. To understand the conduct of Charles at this juncture, it is necessary to remind ourselves of the main aim of his life. He had inherited from Maximilian the idea of establishing an universal supremacy in Western Europe; from his grandmother Isabella, that severe spirit of orthodoxy so characteristic of the Spanish nation.
16 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 2. From the Diet of Augsburg to the Peace of Augsburg.
§ 2. From the Diet of Augsburg to the Peace of Augsburg.
When on September 1, 1547, Charles met his Diet at Augsburg, he seemed at last about to realise his dream of re-establishing the unity of the Church. Diet of Augsburg. Sept. 1547 to June 1548. All his opponents were either defeated or had come to terms, and all had agreed to accept the decisions of a General Council. The Diet unanimously declared itself to the same effect, and demanded that the Council should be recalled to Trent. The Chamber of the Princes further insisted that the decisions al
34 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 3. Last War between France and Spain.
§ 3. Last War between France and Spain.
The wish of Charles to secure a few years’ peace for his successor was not fulfilled. It was thwarted by the Duke of Guise, Paul IV. allies himself with France against Philip. July 1556. the representative of the war party in France, and by his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine, but more especially by Paul IV. That fiery prelate, who was now in his eightieth year, although a leader in the Catholic reaction, had throughout his life been a strenuous opponent of the Spaniard in Italy. A member of a
6 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 1. The Counter-Reformation.
§ 1. The Counter-Reformation.
With the abdication and the death of Charles V. , the history of Europe loses that unity which it received from the comprehensiveness of his policy, and from his striking personality. None the less, a central point of interest is afforded us by the movement of the Counter-Reformation, which affects all Europe and focuses the political movements for the next thirty years, or more. Spain, the home of the Counter-Reformation. The Counter-Reformation found its impulse in that profound sense of diss
16 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 2. Calvin and Geneva.
§ 2. Calvin and Geneva.
While the Church of Rome was thus marshalling her forces, that form of Protestantism which was henceforth to be her most deadly foe was receiving its organisation at the hands of John Calvin. It is a remarkable fact that Lutheranism has never made any permanent conquests outside Germany and the Scandinavian kingdoms, Causes of failure of Lutheranism. and that even in Germany the numbers of its adherents decreased after the middle of the sixteenth century. For this, three reasons may be suggested
7 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 1. Persecution of the Protestants—The Inquisition.
§ 1. Persecution of the Protestants—The Inquisition.
At the date of the Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis (April 5, 1559), Philip was in his thirty-second year. He had already wedded and lost two wives. His first, Maria of Portugal, had died, in giving birth to Don Carlos, on July 8, 1545; his second, Mary of England, on 17th November 1558. After having settled the government of the Netherlands (cf. p. 319 ff.), Philip proceeded to Spain. Philip lands in Spain. Aug. 29, 1559. A furious tempest greeted his arrival; nine vessels of his fleet were lost; and
6 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 2. The Mystery of Don Carlos.
§ 2. The Mystery of Don Carlos.
According to some authorities the zeal of Philip did not spare his own son and heir, Don Carlos. The history of this unfortunate Prince was so distorted by the enemies of his father Philip during his own lifetime, Don Carlos. 1545–1568. and since then has become such a favourite subject of romance, that on some points it is difficult to arrive at the truth. Some declare that the estrangement between father and son was caused by the suspicion of a guilty passion between the Prince and his stepmot
4 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 3. Wars against the Moors and Turks. The Rebellion of the Moriscoes.
§ 3. Wars against the Moors and Turks. The Rebellion of the Moriscoes.
By the ordinance of 1502, published by Ferdinand after the suppression of the Moorish rebellion in Granada (cf. p. 96 ), Condition of the Moriscoes. the alternative of baptism or exile had been offered to the Moors, and this had been extended to Aragon, and its subordinate kingdoms Valencia and Catalonia, in the early part of the reign of the Emperor Charles. To further the work of conversion churches had been built in the districts most occupied by the Moors, and missionaries despatched thither
13 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 4. Renewed struggle against the Turks. The victory of Lepanto, 1571–1574.
§ 4. Renewed struggle against the Turks. The victory of Lepanto, 1571–1574.
If the intolerance of Philip is responsible for the cruel proscription of the Protestants and the Moriscoes, his political interests at least did not lead him into such inconsistencies as those of other European sovereigns. Indeed, when we consider the attitude of the great Powers in Europe towards the Turks at this moment, we shall be led to the conclusion that their policy with regard to heretics, as well as to infidels, was guided rather by political, than by religious considerations. The Fre
6 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 5. The conquest of Portugal.
§ 5. The conquest of Portugal.
On August 4, 1578, Sebastian, the young King of Portugal, was killed at the battle of Alcazar-Kébir as he was conducting a crazy campaign against Abd-el-Melek, the Sultan of Morocco. Death of Sebastian, King of Portugal. Aug. 4, 1578. The death of the young King, who appears to have been half-mad, at once aroused the determination of Philip to secure the crown of Portugal, and thus finally unite the Iberian Peninsula under one hand. The successor of Sebastian was his great-uncle, Henry. He was a
3 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 6. Internal Government of Philip II.
§ 6. Internal Government of Philip II.
Although the government of Philip II. was practically a despotism, it would be a mistake to suppose that no constitutional checks existed, or that they were entirely futile. The Government despotic; yet constitutional forms survive in Spain and its dependencies. The Cortes of Castile and Aragon still survived, and even in the subject provinces the old assemblies were not done away with. In Castile, the Cortes nominally enjoyed deliberative powers; no edict could constitutionally be issued excep
20 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
CHAPTER VIII
CHAPTER VIII
The revolt of the Netherlands has been generally looked upon as a notable instance of the resistance of a democracy to religious persecution. The statement, however, requires some modification. The religious element, no doubt, furnished a principle of enthusiasm to many, more especially in the northern provinces. Yet persecution was not the primary, nor indeed the chief cause of discontent, and many Catholics, at first, in any case, joined the party of resistance; 67 while the oligarchical chara
56 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 1. The Rise of the Huguenots during the Reign of Francis I.
§ 1. The Rise of the Huguenots during the Reign of Francis I.
While France, in pursuit of her policy of opposition to the House of Hapsburg, had been allying herself with the Protestants of Germany, heresy had been growing apace within her own borders. The first French Reformers. Jacques Lefèvre of Étaples may fairly claim the title of father of French Protestantism. A lecturer on theology at Paris, he had in a commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul (1512) taught the Doctrine of Justification by Faith five years before Luther had denounced indulgences. In
2 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 2. The Reign of Henry II., 1547–1559.
§ 2. The Reign of Henry II., 1547–1559.
Meanwhile, the French Protestants had come under the influence of Calvin. In 1535, he had dedicated his Institutes to Francis I. , in the hope, it is said, French Protestantism becomes Calvinistic and aggressive. of convincing the King that his doctrines were not dangerous, and from that moment the French rapidly assimilated the teaching of their great countryman. French Protestantism now became dissociated from the literary movement with which it had hitherto been connected, its churches were
2 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 3. The Reign of Francis II., July, 1559–December, 1560
§ 3. The Reign of Francis II., July, 1559–December, 1560
The Protestants, or Huguenots, 80 as they began to be called, were now too powerful to be put down by such persecution as was possible. They numbered some 400,000, Condition of Huguenots at accession of Francis II. of whom the largest proportion were either burghers and tradesmen of some substance, or belonged to the smaller nobility, a military class who were only too ready to appeal to arms. Nor were they destitute of leaders from the higher nobility and from those of influence at court, notab
10 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 4. Charles IX., December 1560–May 1574.
§ 4. Charles IX., December 1560–May 1574.
The Guises, baulked of their prey, went at first in such fear of their lives that they shut themselves up in their palace, and Catherine at last seemed to have her opportunity. As Charles IX. was only ten, a regency was necessary, and, beyond all dispute, Catherine rules in the name of Charles IX. the office should have been held by Antony of Navarre. But he agreed to surrender his right to the Queen-mother, reserving for himself only the office of Lieutenant-general. Catherine was delighted. ‘
35 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 5. The reign of Henry III., March 1574–July 1589.
§ 5. The reign of Henry III., March 1574–July 1589.
The death of Charles IX. gave Henry a pretext for hastily leaving Poland, where he had already become unpopular. He did not, however, appear to be in any hurry to reach his new kingdom. Henry III. leaves Poland and reaches France. Sept. 1574. Warned by his mother to avoid North Germany, since ‘the German princes had too many causes of quarrel with France,’ he passed through Austria and Italy. At Venice, he wasted two months in luxury and debauch, and is said to have been corrupted by the licenc
20 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
§ 6. Henry IV. and the League, July 1589—May 1598.
§ 6. Henry IV. and the League, July 1589—May 1598.
By the assassination of Henry III. , Henry of Navarre became the legitimate King of France. The question was, whether he would make good his claim. Had he now been willing to declare himself a Roman Catholic, he would have at once won over the more conservative of the people, for the League was daily becoming more anarchical; the Cardinal of Bourbon, who was by it acknowledged as King Charles X. , was but a puppet of Spain; and the Spanish alliance was ever growing more unpopular. But conversi
19 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Conclusion.
Conclusion.
The Treaty of Vervins scarcely made any alteration in the political geography of Europe. Its importance lies rather in the changed conditions which accompanied it, and followed it. Condition of Europe at the Peace of Vervins. A few months after the signing of that treaty, Philip II. died (September 12, 1598) in his seventy-second year, at the Escurial—that magnificent though somewhat strange mixture of ‘a palace, a monastery, and a tomb,’ which is the chief architectural monument of his reign.
4 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX I
Composed of three Chambers, consisting of deputies from the three Orders of Nobles, Clergy, Tiers État (Third Estate). Mode of Election. —On fixed day, nobles, clergy, and townsmen met in chief town of Bailliage or Sénéchaussée. Nobles and Clergy by direct Election. —The nobles and clergy drew up their cahiers (petitions), and elected their deputies separately. Tiers État by double Election. —The townsmen chose a body of electors, who drew up the cahier, and elected the deputy. After 1484 the pe
18 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX II
Seven Greater Arti = Popolo Grasso. Fourteen Lesser Arti = Popolo Minuto. Finally, a law having passed these Councils had to be submitted to a General Council of them all. The Signory and the colleagues ex officio were members of these Councils. System of voting. By ballot. Black and white beans. Black = yes, white = no. ⅔ of black beans necessary to carry a question. Finally, a law having passed these Councils had to be submitted to a General Council of them all. The Signory and the colleagues
21 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX III
Confined by law of 1296 to the families of those who were then members ( Serrata del Maggior Consiglio ). The eligible had to be elected, but were, as a matter of fact, always elected. No one could take his seat until the age of twenty-five, with the exception of thirty who were elected every December, and a few specially allowed to do so, in return for loans lent to the State. Its functions were chiefly Elective . All officials, and magistrates elected by it, except a few of the highest officer
8 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter