Mechanics Of The Household - free ebook by E. S. (Edward Spencer) Keene

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Mechanics Of The Household

E. S. (Edward Spencer) Keene

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MECHANICS OF THE HOUSEHOLD

MECHANICS OF THE HOUSEHOLD

McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS FOR Coal Age ▼ Electric Railway Journal Electrical World ▼ Engineering News-Record American Machinist ▼ The Contractor Engineering &amp; Mining Journal ▼ Power Metallurgical &amp; Chemical Engineering Electrical Merchandising This book is intended to be a presentation of the physical principles and mechanism employed in the equipment that has been developed for domestic convenience. Its aim is to provide information relative to the general p

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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

There are few communities where household equipment cannot be found to illustrate each of the subjects discussed. Most modern school houses are equipped for automatic control of temperature, ventilation and humidity. They are further provided with systems of gas, water and electric distribution and arrangements for sewage disposal. These facilities furnish demonstration apparatus that are also examples of their application. Additional examples of the various forms of plumbing and pipe fittings,

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Heat of Vaporization.

Heat of Vaporization.

—The temperature of the steam is comparatively an unimportant factor in the amount of heat given up by the radiator. It is the heat liberated at the time the steam changes from vapor to water that produces the greatest effect in changing the temperature of the house. This evolution of heat by condensation is sometimes called the latent heat of vaporization. It is the heat that was used up in changing the water to vapor. The following table of the properties of steam shows the temperatures and ex

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Steam Temperatures.

Steam Temperatures.

—While the temperature of steam is an unimportant factor in the heating of buildings there are many uses in which it is of the greatest consequence. When steam is employed for cooking or baking it is not the quantity of heat but its intensity that is necessary for the accomplishment of its purpose. Steam cookers must work at a temperature suitable to the articles under preparation, and the length of time required in the process. Examination of the table on page 3, will show that steam at the pre

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Gage Pressure—Absolute Pressure.

Gage Pressure—Absolute Pressure.

—In the practice of engineering among English speaking people, pressures are stated in pounds per square inch, above the atmosphere. This is termed gage pressure. It is that indicated by the gages of boilers, tanks, etc., subjected to internal pressure. Under ordinary conditions the term pressure is understood to mean gage pressure, the 0 point being that of the pressure of the atmosphere. This system requires pressures below that of the atmosphere to be expressed as a partial vacuum, a complete

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Two-pipe System.

Two-pipe System.

—Fig. 5 is a diagram of a two-pipe system. Here, each radiator has a supply pipe , through which the steam enters, and a return pipe which conducts the water away. The branch pipes from a common supply pipe or riser, carry steam to the various radiators and all of the return pipes empty into a single return pipe that takes the water back to its source. It will be noticed that in this case the riser also connects at the bottom with the return pipe. This connection is made for the purpose of condu

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Separate-return System.

Separate-return System.

—A diagram of a separate-return system is shown in Fig. 7. In this figure, the radiator, boiler and supply pipes are the same as those of Fig. 5, but there is a separate return pipe from each of the radiators, connecting with the main return pipe at a point below the water line of the boiler. Examination of this diagram will show that there is an independent circuit for the steam through each radiator. The steam is taken from a common riser as before but after passing through the radiator the wa

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Overhead or Drop System.

Overhead or Drop System.

—There is yet another gravity system of steam heating that is sometimes used in large buildings where economy in the use of pipe is desired; this is the overhead or drop system shown in Fig. 9. It is not a common method of piping and is given here only because of its occasional use. In the arrangement of the drop system, the supply pipe for the radiators rises from the boiler to the highest point of the system and the branch pipes for the radiators are taken off from the descending pipe. Its act

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Water-filled Radiators.

Water-filled Radiators.

—Radiators frequently fill with water and are noisy because of the position of the valve. This may be true in any gravity system but particularly so in radiators having a single pipe. When the valve of a single-pipe radiator is opened a very small amount, the entering steam is immediately condensed but the water cannot escape because the incoming steam entirely fills the opening. Under this condition, the radiator may entirely fill with water. If the valve is then opened wide, the imprisoned wat

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Air Vents.

Air Vents.

—All radiators must be provided with air vents. The vent is placed near the top of the last loop of the radiator, at the end opposite from the entering steam, as indicated in Figs. 2, 3, 6, etc. The object of the vent is to allow the air to escape from the radiator as the steam enters. Steam will not diffuse with the air and, therefore, cannot enter the radiator until the air is discharged. The air vent may be a simple cock such as is shown in Fig. 10, that must be opened by hand when the steam

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Automatic Air Vents.

Automatic Air Vents.

—These vents depend for their action on the expansion of a part of the valve due to the temperature of the steam. The valve remains closed when hot and opens when cold. The difference in temperature between the steam and the expelled air from the radiator is the controlling factor. In the automatic vent shown in Fig. 11, the part A is screwed into the radiator loop. The discharge C is open to the air or connected with a drip pipe, which returns the water to the basement. The cylinder D , which c

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Steam Radiator Valves.

Steam Radiator Valves.

—Like most other mechanical appliances that are extensively used, radiator valves are made by a great number of manufacturers and in many different forms. Some possess special features that are intended to increase their working efficiency but the type of radiator valve most commonly used for ordinary construction is that illustrated in Figs. 14 and 15. It is a style of angle valve that takes the place of an elbow and being made with a union joint , also furnishes a means of disconnecting the ra

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THE HOUSE-HEATING STEAM BOILER

THE HOUSE-HEATING STEAM BOILER

House-heating boilers were formerly made of sheet metal and are still so constructed to some extent, but by far the greater number are now made of cast iron. Sheet-metal boilers are constructed at the factory, ready to be installed, but the cast-iron type is made in sections and assembled to make a complete boiler, at the time the plant is erected. Sectional boilers are convenient to install, on account of the possibility of handling the parts in a limited space, that would not admit an assemble

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RULE FOR PROPORTIONING RADIATORS

RULE FOR PROPORTIONING RADIATORS

Rules for determining the amount of radiating surface that will be required to satisfactorily heat a building to 70°F. regardless of weather conditions are entirely empirical, that is, they are derived from experience. It is evident that no definite rule can be established that will take into account the method of building construction, the kind and amount of materials that make up the walls and the quality of workmanship employed. These variable quantities coupled with the changing climatic con

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PROPORTIONING THE SIZE OF MAINS

PROPORTIONING THE SIZE OF MAINS

For any size system of steam or water heating the following rule will be found entirely satisfactory for mains 100 feet long; for each 100 feet additional use a size larger ratio. Rule. — r = (3.1416/ d ) R = a / r × 100. r represents ratio of main in inches for each 100 feet of surface; d , diameter of pipe; R , quantity of radiation carried by size of pipe; a , area of pipe in inches. From this the following table has been constructed:...

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FORMS OF RADIATORS

FORMS OF RADIATORS

Radiators are much the same in appearance for both steam and hot-water heating. They are hollow cast-iron columns so designed that they may be fastened together in units of any number of sections. The sections are made in size to present a definite number of square feet of outside surface that is spoken of as radiating surface. The amount of radiating surface in any radiator depends on its height and the contour of the cross-section. The radiator sections may be made in the form of a single colu

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PIPE COVERINGS

PIPE COVERINGS

All hot-water or steam pipes in the basement and in other places not intended to be used for heating should be covered with some form of insulating material. At ordinary working temperature a square foot of hot pipe surface will radiate about 15 B.t.u. of heat per minute. To prevent this loss of heat and the consequent waste of fuel the pipes should be covered with some form of insulating material. Pipe coverings are made of many kinds of material and some possess insulating properties that may

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The Low-pressure Hot-water System.

The Low-pressure Hot-water System.

A hot-water plant of the simplest form is shown in Fig. 32. The illustration presents each of the features mentioned above, as in a working plant. The different parts are shown cut across through the middle, the black portion representing water. Not only does the water fill the entire system but appears in the expansion tank when the plant is cold. Hot-water heaters are quite generally in the form of internally fired boilers. The fire-box occupies a place inside the boiler and is surrounded, exc

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The High-pressure Hot-water System.

The High-pressure Hot-water System.

—In the hot-water plant described the expansion tank is open to the air and the water in the system is subjected to the pressure of the atmosphere alone. The heat of the furnace may be sufficiently great to bring the entire volume of water of the system to the boiling point and cause it to overflow but the temperature of the water cannot rise much above the boiling point due to the pressure of the atmosphere. If the expansion tank is closed, the pressure generated by the expanding water and the

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Heating-plant Design.

Heating-plant Design.

—A heating plant should be designed by a person of experience. No set of rules has yet been devised that will meet every condition. Carpenter’s rules given on page 25 serve for hot water as well as for steam as a means of determining the radiating surface required for an ordinary building, but the rules do not take into account the method of construction of the house and the consequent extra radiation demanded for poorly constructed buildings. In many cases the designer must rely on experience a

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Overhead System of Hot-water Heating.

Overhead System of Hot-water Heating.

—In Fig. 35 is illustrated another system of high-pressure hot-water heating that corresponds to the overhead system of steam heating. It differs from the high-pressure system already described in the method of distribution and in the radiator connections. The flow pipe is taken to the attic and there joined to the expansion tank as a point of distribution. On the expansion tank is a safety valve set at 10 or more pounds pressure. The flow of the water is all downward toward the radiators. The c

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Expansion Tanks.

Expansion Tanks.

—Fig. 36 is a form of expansion tank in common use. It may be used for either the high-or low-pressure system. The body of the tank is made of galvanized iron and is made to stand a considerable amount of pressure. The gage-glass is attached at B , and the overflow at O . The pipe E connects the tank with the circulating system and D connects with the cold-water supply as a convenience for filling the system with water. The object in placing the stop-cock D near the expansion tank is to avoid ov

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Radiator Connection.

Radiator Connection.

—The method of connecting the radiators to the distributing pipes depends entirely on local conditions. In a well-balanced system any of the methods shown in Figs. 38, 39 or 40 might be used with good heating effects. The method of attaching the supply pipe to the radiator is, however, an important factor in case of accumulation of air. In Fig. 41 is shown the form of connection most commonly used. The drawing is intended to represent a cast-iron radiator with the valve at D , and the air vent a

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Hot-water Radiators.

Hot-water Radiators.

—Radiators for hot-water heating are most commonly of cast iron and in appearance are the same as those used for steam heating. The only difference in the two forms is in the openings between the sections. Those intended for steam have an opening at the bottom joining the sections; while those for hot water have openings at both top and bottom to permit circulation of the water....

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Hot-water Radiator Valves.

Hot-water Radiator Valves.

—Valves for hot-water radiators differ materially from those used on steam radiators. Figs. 43 and 43a show the outside appearance and the mechanical arrangement of the parts of the Ohio hot-water valve. The part A in Fig. 43 a is a hollow brass cylinder attached to the valve-stem, one side of which has been removed. When it is desired to shut off the supply of heat the handle of the valve is given one-quarter turn and the part A covers the opening to the inlet pipe. The supply of water being sh

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Automatic Hot-water Air Vents.

Automatic Hot-water Air Vents.

—It is sometimes desired to use automatic air vents on hot-water radiators. For such work a vent is used that remains closed as long as water is present and will open when the water is displaced by the accumulating air, but will again close when the air is discharged. In such vents the valve is controlled by a float, the buoyancy of the float when surrounded by water serving to keep the valve closed. These vents are not so positive in their action as automatic air vents for steam. The change in

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CONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUCTION

The furnace, in general construction, consists of a cast-iron fire-box with its heating surfaces, through which the flames and heated gases from the fire pass, on the way to the chimney; these with the passages and heating surfaces for heating the air compose the essential features. Fig. 45 shows such a furnace with the sides broken away to show the internal construction. The flames and gases from the fire-box F circulate through the cast-iron drum D and are discharged at C to the chimney. The d

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Hand Regulation.

Hand Regulation.

—The damper regulator used on a steam boiler is a simple device that automatically controls the draft dampers by reason of the changing pressures of the steam. The object of the damper regulator is to prevent the generation of steam in the boiler beyond a certain pressure at which the valve is set. This point is usually 3 or 4 pounds below the pressure at which the safety valve would act. If in proper working order the damper regulator will so control the dampers that the boiler will always cont

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Damper Regulators for Hot-water Furnaces.

Damper Regulators for Hot-water Furnaces.

—The damper regulator for a hot-water boiler automatically controls the dampers of the furnace so as to keep the water of the boiler approximately at a constant temperature. The regulator is shown in Fig. 52. The ends of the lever are connected to the direct-draft and check-draft dampers, as in the case of the damper regulator for the steam plant. A cross-section of the working parts shows the details of construction. The lever d is operated by a diaphragm g , which tightly covers a brass bowl,

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The Thermostat Motor.

The Thermostat Motor.

—The thermostat motor automatically opens and closes the furnace dampers or the valve that admits steam to the radiators as heat is demanded by the controller. The motor, as shown in Fig. 53, consists of a system of gears and a brake S , which regulates the speed, a cam M , and armature I , for starting and stopping the motor, and the electromagnet H-H which operates the bar I . Two lever arms L , one in front and the other at the back of the motor furnish means for attachment to the valve or fu

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Combined Thermostat and Damper Regulator.

Combined Thermostat and Damper Regulator.

—It is evident that, in heating a house by steam, the damper regulator governs only the steam pressure of the boiler. In the use of a thermostat alone, the regulation is that of the temperature of the rooms only, and has nothing to do with the steam pressure. As an example: Suppose that in cold weather the house is cold and that the gage of the steam boiler shows no pressure. The desire is to get up steam as soon as possible. In so doing a hot fire is made with a large amount of fuel. As soon as

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Thermostat-motor Connections.

Thermostat-motor Connections.

—The arrangement of cords and pulleys used for attaching the thermostat motor to the furnace dampers will depend very much on local conditions. The motor can be placed in any convenient position so that the connecting cords will act most directly. The motor opens and closes the direct draft and check draft in accordance with the demand for heat. The connections for all kinds of furnaces are made in much the same manner. The pulleys supplied with the motor are placed to work as freely, and the co

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General Firing Rules.

General Firing Rules.

1. Put but little coal on a low fire. 2. When adding coal to the boiler, open the smoke-pipe damper (inside the smoke pipe) and close the cold-air check damper. This will make a draft through the feed doorway inward and prevent the escape of dust or gas into the cellar when the feed door is open to take fuel. Put these parts back to their regular places after feeding. 3. When it can be done, in feeding a large amount of coal (as for night) leave a part of the fire or flame exposed, so that the g

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Weather and Time of Day.

Weather and Time of Day.

—In severe weather keep the fire pot full of coal, and run the heater by the dampers or regulator (if one is used). Thoroughly clean the grate twice a day. Let the top of the fire in front be level with the feed door sill. Bank up the coal higher to the rear. In moderate weather there should be from 2 to 6 inches of ashes between the live coal and the grate. As the weather grows colder keep the grate and the fire pot a little cleaner—sometimes it helps to run the poker or slicing bar over it thr

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Night Firing.

Night Firing.

—In very cold weather , when the house should be kept warm all night, clean the grate well at a late hour—the last thing. Clear the bottom of the fire pot of all ashes and clinkers so that the grate is covered with clear-burning, red-hot coals, then fill the pot full of fuel. If possible, leave some of the flame exposed to burn the gases. Leave the drafts on long enough to burn off some of the gas, then check the heater for the night. Thus there is plenty of coal to burn during the night and som

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First-day Firing.

First-day Firing.

—In the morning of moderate winter weather , with the ash-pit draft damper open, before adding any coal allow the fire to brighten up if it seems to be low; then (for such conditions) spread over a thin layer of fresh coal and set the drafts for a brisk fire. After the new fire is well started add as much coal as may be necessary to last until next firing. Do not shake much if any—just enough to give space for more coal. Then by setting the regulator (if one is used), or, by closing the ash-pit

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Other-day Firing.

Other-day Firing.

—In severe weather more coal should be added about noon, sometimes the draft may be left on for a few minutes and then checked. And in such weather it is often well to give the boiler further attention at five or six o’clock. In severest weather the boiler should not be attended more than four times a day; and generally not less than three times. Often much coal is wasted by “nagging” the fire—poking, shaking and feeding it until it becomes “dyspeptic.” A sure cure is a little common sense in re

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Economy and Fuels.

Economy and Fuels.

—In running many boilers for moderate weather better results follow if the grate is not shaken too much or too often. Sometimes in moderate weather a body of ashes on the grate checks the fire and there is enough heat without a useless burning of fuel. Many houses are overheated in moderate weather and too much coal burned by running the boiler as for zero weather. So we repeat— it is not wise to overshake or overfeed a boiler in moderate weather . The fire should be in such shape that if a chan

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For Burning Soft Coal.

For Burning Soft Coal.

—Some types of boilers are made to burn soft coal with economy, with least work. Some types are made specially to burn the meaner grades of soft coal. Firing to prevent smoke is a source of economy and these ways of running should be followed—specially with large sectional boilers. There are two types of soft coal, viz.: The free-burning coal, which breaks apart when burning, allowing the gases to freely escape; and the fusing-coking coal, which, when burning, first fuses into a solid burning ma

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For Burning Coke.

For Burning Coke.

—It is best to keep the pot full of fuel—keeping a large body of coke under a low fire rather than a little fuel under a strong fire. It must be remembered that coke makes a very “hot fire” because the coke is free-burning. Care should be taken not to leave drafts on too long in boilers not having regulators. Coke burns best for house-heating purposes with less draft than is required for coal, therefore to keep a low fire the ash-pit draft damper should be kept closed, and the smoke-pipe damper

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Other Rules for Water Boilers

Other Rules for Water Boilers

— To Fill System. —Open the feed-cock when the heater is connected with a city or town water supply; if not, fill by funnel at the expansion tank. Fill until the gage-glass on the expansion tank shows about half full of water. In filling the system see that all air cocks on the radiators are closed. Then beginning with the lower floor, open the air cocks on each radiator, one at a time, until each radiator is filled; then close the air cock and take the next radiators on upper floors until all a

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Air-vent Valves on Radiators.

Air-vent Valves on Radiators.

—In order to secure the full benefit of the heating surface of a hot-water radiator, the inside of the section must be free of air. When a radiator is “air-bound” it means that parts of the sections are filled with air in pockets which remain until the air is allowed to pass off through the vent valve. Air will gather from time to time at the highest points inside the radiators, especially in those placed in the upper stories of the building. These air accumulations inside cut down the working p

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Valves on Cellar Mains.

Valves on Cellar Mains.

—If cut-off valves have been placed on the main and return pipes in the cellar, see that the valves on one line of main and return pipes (at least) are open when the boiler is under operation. Be sure that the system is open to circulate water through the supply and return pipes before building a fire in the boiler. —At the close of the heating season clean all the fire and flue surfaces of the boiler. Let the water remain in the system during the summer months. No bad results will follow if the

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End of the Season.

End of the Season.

It is a very good idea to take down the smoke pipe in the spring, thoroughly clean and put it back in place. Leave all doors open on the boiler in the summer time....

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Other Rules for Steam Boilers

Other Rules for Steam Boilers

— To Fill Boiler. —Open the feed-cock when the heater is connected with city or town water supply; if not, fill through the funnel. Let the water run until the gage-glass shows about half full of water. In the first filling, after the water has boiled, get up a pressure of at least 10 pounds, draw the fire and blow off the boiler under pressure through draw-off cock to remove oil and sediment, after which refill with fresh water to the water line. This is best done usually by the steam-fitter. T

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To Control Radiators.

To Control Radiators.

—When it is desired to shut off steam from any radiator (if the regular radiator valves are used), close the valve tight , and when it is turned on see that the valve is wide open . A valve partly turned off will cause the radiator to fill with water. This rule applies only to one-pipe heating systems. —If little keyed air valves (sometimes called “pet-cocks”) are used, follow generally the same directions as outlined for hot-water radiators on page 49 —only, of course, in releasing the air from

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The Air Valves.

The Air Valves.

If “automatic” air valves are used they must be carefully adjusted by the steam-fitter and then left to operate without undue interference....

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End of the Season.

End of the Season.

—At the close of the heating season fill the steam boiler with water to the safety valve and let it thus stand through the summer. Also thoroughly clean all the fire and flue surfaces of the boiler and at the opening of the next season withdraw the water and refill with fresh water to the water line, starting the boiler as before. It is advisable to have a competent steam-fitter blow off the boiler under pressure and thus give the inside a thorough cleaning when the boiler is first set up and re

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THE RIGHT CHIMNEY FLUE

THE RIGHT CHIMNEY FLUE

The area of the flue should never be less than 8 inches in diameter if round, or 8 by 8 inches if square—unless for a very small heating boiler or tank heater. Nine or 10 inches round, or 8 by 12 rectangular is a good average size. The flue should generally have a little more area than that of the connecting smoke pipes. Draft force depends very much on the height of the flue. The chimney top should run above the highest part of the roof and should be so located with reference to any higher buil

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Water Supply.

Water Supply.

—The water supply taken from the street main is conducted to the house by the pipe shown in Fig. 58, at C . This pipe is generally of lead as piping of that metal is the most durable for underground work. Iron used under the same conditions will last only a few years. The connection is made with the water main by use of a corporation cock. This is a special style of cock that is shown in Fig. 63. In the figure the cock is connected with a short piece of lead pipe that is used for making connecti

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WATER COCKS

WATER COCKS

The development of modern plumbing has brought about the use of a great number of household mechanical appliances, that have received trade names little understood by the average person. The lack of distinguishing terms, or language in which to describe plumbing fixtures, often leads to embarrassment, when such articles are to be described to workmen. Common household valves and cocks are so classified by the trade, that mistakes are often made in their designation, because of a limited knowledg

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THE BATHROOM

THE BATHROOM

With the present-day improvements in plumbing, and the perfection in the manufacture of porcelain and enameled iron, the bathrooms of houses of moderate cost have become places of cleanliness, attractive, relatively free from offending odors and supplied with all necessary sanitary fixtures. Enameled iron has reached a state of perfection where it rivals porcelain in beauty. The forms of the various bathroom pieces have been modeled for convenience in use and grace of form, at the same time the

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RANGE BOILERS

RANGE BOILERS

The hot-water supply to the household is of so much importance, that the installation of the range boiler should be made with great care, and an understanding of the principle on which it works should be fully appreciated by all who have to do with its management. The ability of the boiler to supply the demands put upon it depends in a great measure on its size and the arrangement of its parts, but proper management is necessary to assure a supply of hot water when required. Range boilers are us

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Water Analysis.

Water Analysis.

—In order to be assured as to the quality of drinking water, it should be subjected to analysis and the result of the analysis inspected by a physician of good standing. Such analysis may usually be obtained free of charge from the State Board of Health and if asked, the Chief Chemist will usually give his opinion regarding the quality as drinking water. In chemical water analysis, the total amount of solids, regardless of their nature is taken as indicative of its excellence for drinking purpos

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Pokegama Water.

Pokegama Water.

—The water from Pokegama Spring at Detroit, Minn. is used widely through the Northwest as a table water. It is considered to be a very excellent drinking water because of the low amount of solids and the absence of any deleterious constituents. The complete chemical analysis as reported by the North Dakota Pure Food Laboratory is as follows: The total solids, 20.2611 grains per gallon, equivalent to 346.85 parts per million, is very low and composed of carbonates of sodium, calcium and magnesium

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River Water.

River Water.

—The water supply of the city of Fargo, N. D., is taken from the Red River of the North, which after being filtered through a mechanical filtration plant is supplied to the water system of the city. The river water in its raw state is considered unfit for drinking because of the amount of organic matter present at different times of the year. Analysis of raw water from intake pipe, April 14, 1913: In this water neither the solids nor the organic matter are at all high but during a part of each y

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Artesian Water.

Artesian Water.

—The analysis of the sample of artesian water given below is an example of the water analysis made by the North Dakota Pure Food Laboratory. It furnishes an illustration of the type of reports that are returned from samples of water submitted for examination. This report was in the form of a letter which was taken at random from the files of the laboratory. Sample of artesian water No. 1936 from Moorhead, Minn.: “The solids in this water are made up of sodium chloride, salt, 116 parts; volatile

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Medical Water.

Medical Water.

—The solids that occur most commonly in spring and well water appear in the form of mineral salts. It frequently happens that salts giving a cathartic action are present in sufficient quantity to render the water objectionable when used for drinking. Sodium chloride or common salt frequently occurs in quantity sufficient to be distinctly noticeable. Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) and sodium sulphate (Glauber salts), both of which are well-known laxative salts, very commonly occur in well water

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Organic Matter.

Organic Matter.

—Organic matter may come from peat swamps, decaying leaves and grasses; or it may come from decayed animal matter which finds its way into the soil; or worst of all it may come from cesspools or other sewage. While the presence of organic matter does not necessarily indicate the presence of disease-producing bacteria, it is a medium in which such germs live and multiply; for that reason it is an indicator of possible harm. “Waters containing a high percentage of organic substances and among them

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Ammonia.

Ammonia.

—In the analysis of water the presence of ammonia is an indicator of organic matter. Ammonia is not of itself injurious but it indicates the presence of matter in which bacteria find conditions suited to their growth. Free ammonia is usually considered an indicator of recent pollution, while albuminoid ammonia indicates the presence of nitrogenous matter that has not undergone sufficient decomposition to form ammonia compounds. —Water that holds no mineral matter in solution is “soft water” and

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Hardness in Water.

Hardness in Water.

Hardness in water may occur in two forms—as temporary hardness or as permanent hardness. When bicarbonate predominates as the hardening agent, the water is said to be temporarily hard because, when heated to boiling, the bicarbonate is precipitated and the water is thus softened. When softening of such water is to be done on a large scale, chemical treatment is more satisfactory. Water containing bicarbonate of lime may be softened by adding a pound of lime to 1000 gallons or 1 pound of lime to

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Iron in Water.

Iron in Water.

—Water containing iron is found in many wells and springs. While iron is not harmful, it is objectionable to taste and stains most things with which it is long in contact. It may be precipitated with lime and removed as the sulphate of magnesia described in the preceding paragraph. —By W. L. Stockham, assistant chemist, North Dakota Experiment Station....

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Water Softening with Hydrated Silicates.

Water Softening with Hydrated Silicates.

“The use of chemicals in softening water requires the mechanical removal of the separated materials by skimming, settling or filtering and it is difficult to determine just how much chemical to add. A new process for softening water, and one that has awakened great interest because of its efficiency, employs hydrated silicates of aluminum or iron combined with soluble bases. This process softens water from practically any condition or hardness. “The form of apparatus in use varies from a portabl

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Chlorine.

Chlorine.

—The presence of chlorine in water may indicate the presence of polluting matter in the form of sewage but only when the amount is considerably above the normal amount of chlorine that is contained in the soil in the community from which the water is taken. An increase of the chlorine in the water would indicate a probable pollution from sewage. —Well water that is roily or that possesses objectionable taste or odor may be suspected of containing polluting matter and should be boiled before bein

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Pollution of Wells.

Pollution of Wells.

—The water from wells is often polluted by seepage through the earth from sources that might be prevented. Fig. 123 illustrates some of the commonest sources of contamination that through carelessness or ignorance are located in the neighborhood of the family water supply. The drainage from such sources of pollution is often directed toward the well and many cases of ill-health, disease or death are the direct consequences of drinking its water. It may be readily observed, in the case of the wel

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Safe Distance in the Location of Wells.

Safe Distance in the Location of Wells.

—In the location of a well, the distance of safety from sources of pollution will depend, in a considerable measure, on the character of the soil and the quantity and concentration of the pollution material entering the ground water. When coming from the surface, the danger is usually neither great nor difficult to avoid; but when cesspools and privies in the neighborhood are sunk to a considerable depth in porous earth, from which the supply of water is drawn, the polluting material may reach t

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Surface Pollution of Wells.

Surface Pollution of Wells.

—In dug wells, pollution from the surface is due most commonly to careless construction and lack of care. In Fig. 124 is indicated the most common cause of surface pollution. The figure represents a well that has been curbed with planks. Through lack of care the earth has sunken at the top, permitting the surface water to flow into the well. The top of the well is on a level with the surface and covered with loosely laid boards which allow the waste water to drip through the joints. Such a well,

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Water Table.

Water Table.

—The upper level of the saturated portion of the soil is known as the water table. It has a definite surface that conforms to the broader surface irregularities. While a definite, determinable water table appears only in porous soil, it exists even in dense rocks. It rises and falls in wet seasons and in drought. In exceptionally wet seasons the water table may be at or above the surface. Under such conditions the opportunities for the pollution of wells is much increased. In particularly dry se

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The Devining Rod.

The Devining Rod.

In most cases the operators are entirely honest in their belief and in a large proportion of trial their efforts have been successful in locating desirable wells; but it has many times been proven that the movement of the rod is due to an unconscious muscular movement of the arms and hands, in places where the operator has previously suspected the presence of water. The operator of the devining rods is most successful in regions where water occurs in sheets, such as often occur in gravel or pebb

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Selection of a Type of Well.

Selection of a Type of Well.

—The chief factor which controls the selection of a type of well is the nature of the water-bearing earth, the amount of water required, the cost of construction and the care of the resulting supply. If a large amount of water is to be demanded of a well, to be dug in soil through which the water percolates slowly, the well must be large in diameter, in order that the necessary supply may be accumulated. If the earth is porous and yields its water readily, a small iron pipe driven into the groun

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Flowing Wells.

Flowing Wells.

—Flowing wells are obtained in places where water is confined in the earth, under sufficient pressure to lift it to the surface, through an opening made to the water-bearing stratum. These are known as artesian wells, from the fact that they were first used in Artois (anciently called Artesium) in France. In order that water may have sufficient head to lift it to the surface, it must be confined under impervious clay or other bed of earth, and with its source at a level considerably higher than

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CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS

CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS

Wells are constructed by different methods, depending on the character of the soil in which they are sunk. Their excavation is usually accomplished by one of three general methods: by digging; by driving a pipe into the earth until it penetrates the water-bearing stratum; or by boring a hole with an enlarged earth auger, into the water-bearing soil. Artesian wells are made by drilling with a device suitable for making a small and very deep hole. —In shallow wells the water seeps through the soil

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PUMPS

PUMPS

Pumps for lifting and elevating water are made of both wood and iron in almost endless variety; but for domestic purposes they are of two general types—the lift pump and the force pump—which include features that are common to all. The lift pump is intended for use in lifting water from low-head cisterns and wells, the depth of which is not beyond the head furnished by atmospheric pressure. The force pump performs the work of a lift pump and in addition forces the water from the outlet at a pres

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WELL PUMPS

WELL PUMPS

The pumps intended for raising water from wells are practically the same in construction as the house pump, except that they are intended to deliver a greater volume of water and sometimes to work under a different condition, as that of the deep well pump. Well pumps have, therefore, assumed certain standard forms that differ only in the styles of mechanism employed by different manufacturers. The one shown in Fig. 133 furnishes a good example of a general-purpose iron pump which may be used eit

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RAIN-WATER CISTERNS

RAIN-WATER CISTERNS

Cisterns for the storage of rain water have been used from the time immemorial and are constructed in a great variety of forms. For household use they are often made in the form of wooden or metal tanks, either elevated or placed in the basement; the greater number, however, are of the underground variety made of brick or concrete. Wooden cisterns are made by manufacturers in different sizes and shipped to the user “knocked down;” that is, they are taken apart and the staves, bottom and hoops ar

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THE HYDRAULIC RAM

THE HYDRAULIC RAM

In places where its use is possible, the hydraulic ram is a most convenient and inexpensive means of mechanical water supply. It is simple in construction, requires very little attention and its cost of operation is only the labor necessary to keep it in repair. Whenever a sufficient supply of water will admit of a fall of a few feet, the hydraulic ram may be used as a pump for forcing the water to a distant elevated point, where it may be utilized for all domestic purposes. The water may be use

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DOMESTIC WATER-SUPPLY PLANTS

DOMESTIC WATER-SUPPLY PLANTS

Until recent years, no thought was given to private water-supply plants, in any except the more pretentious residences. It was formerly supposed that the cost of machinery and installation of such plants prohibited the use of a water system in the average home. As an item of expense in building, a satisfactory water-supply system may be installed at a lower cost than is paid for plumbing and bathroom fixtures. In recent years much attention has been given to the design of small water-supply plan

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The Septic Tank.

The Septic Tank.

—The septic tank alone, as used for sewage disposal, is often termed a sewage purifying plant, when in reality it is only intended to change the sewage into a form in which it can be readily carried away. The word septic means putrifying, and when applied to sewage disposal it furnishes a convenient term but has nothing to do with purification. The septic tank furnishes only the first stage of the purifying process, and although its effluent may be clear and possess little odor, it is neverthele

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The Septic Tank With a Sand-bed Filter.

The Septic Tank With a Sand-bed Filter.

—In places where the use of the septic tank alone is not possible, it sometimes happens that the natural conditions are such as will permit the effluent to be drained directly into the soil. With such a condition, the effluent goes into a filter bed composed of gravel or other loose material, where it undergoes still further bacterial action and if the process is complete, the water which comes from the filter bed is clear and odorless. Under good conditions it is clear sparkling water and conta

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The Septic Tank and Anaerobic Filter.

The Septic Tank and Anaerobic Filter.

—In places where the use of the simple septic tank is not possible and where the character of the soil will not permit of a natural sand-bed filter, an anaerobic filter may be constructed through which to pass the effluent from the septic tank. The anaerobic filter is one in which anaerobic bacterial action is given opportunity to reduce the organic matter in the sewage to its elemental condition. The filter may be constructed in any form that will permit the process of filtration to be carried

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Limit of Efficiency.

Limit of Efficiency.

—Much that has been written on the subject conveys the impression that the septic tank alone, used under various conditions, will eliminate disease germs and all offending features of sewage and render it a pure water with a small amount of residue remaining in the tank. That such is not the case is all too evident to many who have constructed plants expecting perfect results and have attained only partial success. It is not reasonable that a plant giving satisfaction under the usual conditions

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Anthracite or hard coal

Anthracite or hard coal

possesses bright lustrous surfaces when newly fractured, that when handled do not soil the hands. It contains a high percentage of carbon, a small amount of volatile matter and little moisture. It is greatly in demand as a domestic fuel because it burns slowly with an intense heat, practically without flame and produces no smoke. It invariably commands a higher price than soft coal, but in heating value is not superior to the better grades of soft coal. In furnaces for house heating the use of s

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Bituminous or soft coal

Bituminous or soft coal

represents the chief fuel of commerce. The market prices of these coals are determined largely by reason of their reputation as desirable fuel. The variations in price depend on the physical qualities, rather than on the amount of heat evolved in combustion. The compositions of coals vary markedly in different localities and often in the same locality several grades are produced. It sometimes happens that from different parts of a mine the coal will differ very much in heat value. Bituminous coa

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Oxidation of Hydrocarbons.

Oxidation of Hydrocarbons.

—In the oxidation of hydrocarbons, as that of burning coal gas, the combination of the elements forms carbon dioxide and water. The presence of the water, formed in combustion, is often shown in the formation of moisture on the bottom of a cold vessel when placed over a gas flame. The same effect is observed in a newly lighted kerosene lamp, when the film of moisture forms inside the cold lamp chimney. As soon as the surfaces become heated the moisture is evaporated. Occasionally, the accumulati

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Semi-bituminous coal

Semi-bituminous coal

represents a class between the hard and soft grades. It contains less carbon and more volatile matter than hard coal. It burns with a short flame with very little smoke and is valuable as a furnace fuel. The Pocahontas coal of West Virginia is an example of this class. Semi-bituminous coal is often called smokeless coal, because in burning it produces relatively little smoke. It will be noted in the table of heat values on page 192 that coal of this variety has high heat-producing properties. It

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Graphitic Anthracite.

Graphitic Anthracite.

—This is a variety of bituminous coal, rich in hydrocarbons. It burns with a bright flame without fusing and is often used for open fires....

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Cannel Coal.

Cannel Coal.

—This is a type of fuel that in point of geological formation represents the condition between true coal and peat. Lignite occurs in immense deposits throughout the middle portion of the western half of the United States, where beds 20 feet in depth are not uncommon. It varies in color from black to brown and in many localities is known as brown coal....

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Lignite.

Lignite.

When newly mined, lignite contains a large percentage of water, sometimes as high as 50 per cent. On account of this large moisture content it has a relatively low calorific value, but when dry the amount of heat evolved per pound compares very favorably with soft coal....

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Peat.

Peat.

—As a fuel, peat has been used very little in the United States on account of the abundance of the better grades of fuel, but in many parts of the country it is used locally to a considerable extent. In peat bogs from which the fuel is taken, the peat is formed from grasses and sedges which in time produce a carbonaceous mass that becomes sufficiently dense to be taken out in sections, with a long narrow spade. The peat is then built into piles where after drying it is ready to be burned. —On ac

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Wood.

Wood.

The desirability of wood as a fuel is chiefly that of reputation. It is usually considered that hickory is the ideal fire wood, dry maple a close second and that oak is next in desirability as fuel; following which are ash, elm, beech, etc., depending on the density of the wood. The price of wood per cord depends on the nearness and abundance of supply. The actual heating values of different woods as determined by Gottlieb show that per pound of dry wood there is little difference in heat value

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Charcoal.

Charcoal.

—This is made from wood by driving off the volatile constituents; the residual carbon, which forms the charcoal is a fuel that burns without smoke or flame. Charcoal is made by piling wood in a heap, which is covered with earth. In the bottom of the heap a fire generates the necessary heat for distilling off the volatile matter. Charcoal holds to wood the same relation that coke bears to coal. —This is the residue from the distillation of coal. It comprises from 60 to 70 per cent. of the origina

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Coke.

Coke.

which is the residue from the gas retorts, is somewhat inferior in heating value to coke made in ovens but it is an excellent fuel where furnaces are adapted to its use. Gas-coke is often stored, by piling it in heaps, in the open and on account of its porous nature it absorbs considerable moisture. Where exposed to the weather the amount of contained moisture depends on the amount of rain or snow the coke has absorbed. This amount is easily determined by weighing a fair sample and driving off t

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Gas-coke,

Gas-coke,

—Briquetted coal and other fuels are produced by compressing coal dust or other powdered fuel, mixed with coal tars or other bituminous binder in sufficient quantity to cause the adhesion of the particles when pressed into form under great pressure. Owing to the relative cheapness of fuel, briquettes have been used but very little in the United States. With the advance in the price of coal of the past few years, they have found a place on the market and have become a common form of fuel. The hea

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Comparative Value of Coal to Other Fuels.

Comparative Value of Coal to Other Fuels.

—Until a comparatively recent time, coal has been sold by weight and reputation alone; but conditions are rapidly approaching, which will require it to be sold according to its composition and heating value. Among manufacturers and others using large quantities of fuel, the practice of contracting for coal by specification is becoming increasingly common. The determining factors are the amounts of moisture, ash, sulphur, carbon, and volatile matter the coal contains, as well as the size of the p

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Price of Coal.

Price of Coal.

—The value of coal as a fuel will depend on the amount of heat it is capable of producing when burned; its price should therefore be determined by the heating value per pound of fuel as purchased. Secondary determining factors in price are those of convenience of handling and the difficulty in burning the fuel such as the size and uniformity of the pieces, the formation of clinkers, smoke and accumulation of soot. Soft coals, containing a large amount of volatile matter, usually produce much soo

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Humidity of the Air.

Humidity of the Air.

The relative humidity of the atmosphere is the amount of moisture contained in a given space as compared with the amount the same air could possibly hold at that temperature. Warm air will hold more moisture than the same air when cold. Air absorbs water like a sponge to a point of saturation. When the air is filled with moisture, any change which takes place to reduce the temperature also reduces its capacity to hold the water vapor and the excess is deposited as dew. This supersaturation ordin

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The Hygrometer.

The Hygrometer.

The rate of evaporation from the wet-bulb covering will vary with the humidity and if the air is very dry the wet-bulb thermometer will register a temperature several degrees below that of the other thermometer. If the air is saturated with moisture, no evaporation will take place and the thermometers will read alike. The relative humidity of the air as indicated by the readings of the thermometers is taken directly from a humidity table. The table is made to suit any condition of atmospheric hu

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The Hygrodeik.

The Hygrodeik.

—In Fig. 158 is shown a form of hygrometer known as a hygrodeik, by means of which atmospheric humidity may be determined without the use of the tables. In the figure the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers are easily recognized. A glass water bottle W is held to the base of the instrument by spring clips which permit its removal to be filled with water. Between the thermometers is a diagram chart from which the atmospheric humidity is taken. An index arm, carrying a movable pointer P , permits t

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Dial Hygrometers.

Dial Hygrometers.

—Various forms of hygrometers are in use, in which a pointer is intended to indicate on a dial the percentage of atmospheric humidity. That shown in Fig. 160 is one of the common forms. Instruments of this kind depend for their action on the absorptive property of catgut or other materials that are sensitive to the moisture changes of the air. These instruments give fairly accurate readings in a small range for a limited time, but they are apt to go out of adjustment from causes that cannot be c

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The Swiss Cottage “Barometer.”

The Swiss Cottage “Barometer.”

—Fig. 161 is one of the instruments of absorptive class that are sometimes used as weather indicators. The images which occupy the openings in the cottage are so arranged that with the approach of damp weather the man comes outside and at the same time the woman moves back into the house. In fair weather the reverse movement takes place. The figures are mounted on the opposite ends of a light stick which is fastened to an upright pillar. The movement of the images is caused by the change in leng

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Dew-point.

Dew-point.

—Dew is formed whenever falling temperature of the air passes the point where saturation occurs. The reduction of the temperature of air raises the relative humidity because of the diminished capacity to contain moisture. As the temperature declines there will come a point at which the air is saturated and any further decrease of temperature will cause supersaturation. At this point the moisture will be deposited on the cooler surfaces in the form of drops. The temperature at which dew begins to

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To Determine the Dew-point.

To Determine the Dew-point.

—The dew-point may be found by a number of methods, usually described in works on physics but practical determinations are made with a hygrometer or psychrometer and a dew-point table. Accurate determinations must be made by the use of the psychrometer; those made by the hygrometer are approximate. Suppose the reading of the dry-bulb thermometer is 68 and that this is designated as t ; at the time the wet-bulb temperature is 57 and is called t´ . The depression of the wet bulb for these temperat

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Frost Prediction.

Frost Prediction.

—The formation of dew is always attended with a liberation of heat—the heat of vaporization—which tends to check the further decline of temperature. The heat thus developed is usually sufficient to prevent the fall of temperature beyond a very few degrees, but at times when there is little moisture in the air the fall of several degrees of temperature is necessary before the heat liberated by the forming dew balances the heat lost by radiation and the temperature remains stationary. This conditi

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Humidifying Apparatus.

Humidifying Apparatus.

In the use of a steam plant or hot-water heating plant the opportunity of humidifying the air is very limited. One method is that of suspending water tanks to the back of the radiators from which water is vaporized. While this method is fairly efficient as a humidifier it is inconvenient and therefore apt to be neglected. In houses heated by stoves there are sometimes water urns attached to the top of the frame which are intended for the evaporation of water but as a rule they are not of suffici

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Quantity of Air Discharged by a Flue.

Quantity of Air Discharged by a Flue.

—Any change of temperature of air produces a change equal to 1 ⁄ 491 part of its volume, for each degree variation. If a cubic foot of air is raised in temperature 1°F., its volume is 1 ⁄ 491 part larger than the original volume, and its buoyancy in the surrounding air is increased correspondingly. Air that has a temperature higher than that surrounding it will tend to rise because it is lighter. The air rising from a hot-air register or from a heated surface are illustrations of this condition.

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Cost of Ventilation.

Cost of Ventilation.

—The cost of good ventilation is often looked upon as prohibitive, because of the expense in heat necessary to keep the inside atmosphere at standard purity. Cost of ventilation is determined by analysis of the known conditions and calculations made of the amount of extra heat necessary to warm the greater volume of air. The common practice of estimating the quantity of heat used in any form of heating or ventilation is by reference to the B.t.u. used in producing the desired condition. This uni

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The Wolpert Air Tester.

The Wolpert Air Tester.

—The purity of air is expressed by quantity of carbonic acid gas included in its composition. In order to determine the degree of purity of any atmosphere the amount of contained gas must be determined. This is accomplished by use of simple apparatus that may be successfully operated by those who are unacquainted with chemical analytical methods. The process is due to chemical action but the manipulation of the required apparatus is purely mechanical. Fig. 165 shows the Wolpert air tester which

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Pneumatic Temperature Regulation.

Pneumatic Temperature Regulation.

—Pneumatic temperature regulation is very generally used in large and complicated heating systems, because of its positive action and completeness of heat control. This method of heat regulation utilizes the energy of compressed air, with which to open and close the valves of the radiators. It may be adapted to any mode of heating and can be used with any size of plant, but is particularly suited to extended systems. The radiators, providing heat for any particular space, are under control of se

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Mechanical Ventilation.

Mechanical Ventilation.

—Draft ventilation produced by open windows, flues and chimneys is influenced by extremes of temperature and by the force and changing direction of the wind; it is, therefore, but imperfectly controlled. The superiority of mechanical ventilation is generally recognized because the amount of entering air may be regulated to suit any circumstance and its temperature and humidity varied to conform to any desired atmospheric conditions. Mechanical ventilating plants are seldom employed in any but th

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The Plenum Method.

The Plenum Method.

—That form of mechanical ventilation by means of which air is forced into the rooms is known as the plenum method. It is the most positive means of air supply because its action is attended by a slight pressure above the outside air; it is continuous in action and the amount of entering air is under control. The escape of the expelled air is made through vent flues especially constructed for the purpose....

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Ventilation Apparatus.

Ventilation Apparatus.

—Fig. 172 illustrates the form of apparatus used for ventilating buildings where no attempt is made at washing or humidifying the air. Enclosed in a sheet-iron case C is a fan which is driven by the electric motor M . The capacity of the fan, for the delivery of air, is made to suit the requirements of the building. In this case the fan is secured to an extension of the armature shaft of the motor. Connecting with the case which encloses the fan is another sheet-iron box H , containg coils of he

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Air Conditioning.

Air Conditioning.

—In addition to the possibility of a constant supply of air, a combination of the exhaust and plenum methods admits of air purification. With such a plant, the air may be washed free from all suspended dust or gases and moistened to any degree of humidity. The process of washing and humidifying air is known as air conditioning. Apparatus for air conditioning is made in a variety of forms to produce any desired extent of air purification and any degree of humidity. The plant may be regulated by h

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Humidifying Plants.

Humidifying Plants.

—Mechanical ventilation plants that are intended for washing the air may be made up of parts similar to that of Fig. 173, but in addition to the apparatus shown provision is made for the air to pass through a chamber filled with a spray of water. The air in passing through this spray is washed free of dust and at the same time absorbs water necessary for its desired humidity. The humidity of air may be increased by the addition of moisture or decreased (dehumidified) by raising its temperature,

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Vaporization as a Cooling Agent.

Vaporization as a Cooling Agent.

—The evaporation of water has a distinct value aside from humidifying the air, in that the cooling effect is in direct proportion to the added moisture. In the process of evaporation the heat necessary to change the water into vapor is taken from the surrounding air and the temperature is thus materially lowered. In practical air-conditioning apparatus, of the evaporative or spray types, the process consists of drawing the outside air into a chamber filled with falling water that is broken up in

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Air-cooling Plants.

Air-cooling Plants.

—The use of air-washing and humidifying plants so far mentioned has been confined to elimination of dust and the addition of moisture to air, under winter conditions. The same type of apparatus, used in summer, becomes a cooling plant, and by observance of the necessary requirements may be used to produce agreeable atmospheric conditions during hot weather. When used for such purpose the air is washed, by passing it through falling water which frees it from dust and reduces its temperature. It i

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Humidity Control.

Humidity Control.

—The method of regulating atmospheric humidity in a humidifying plant will be determined by the conditions under which it is intended to work. There are a variety of means employed that may be used to bring about the same effects, each of which is particularly suited to certain requirements. The present object is to describe the essential features of airconditioning plants, by use of illustrations representing each of the three methods mentioned above. That of the ventilation of a school buildin

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Coal Gas.

Coal Gas.

—In places where an abundant supply of cheap oil is available, all-oil water gas has met with a great deal of favor. It is made by atomizing crude oil by a blast of steam in a heated chamber where a combination of the vaporized oil and steam form a gas. In general the gas resembles coal gas and as given in the table on page 252 is slightly higher in heating value....

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All-oil Water Gas.

All-oil Water Gas.

—One of the commercial adaptations of oil gas is that of the Pintsch process of compressing the gas in tanks for transportation. In the Pintsch process, the gas is subjected to a pressure of 10 atmospheres—about 150 pounds. This condensation permits a sufficiently large volume of gas to be stored in tanks as to make possible the lighting of railroad trains, etc., by gaslight. The pressure of the gas is reduced by an automatic regulating valve to that required by the burner. The flame is very muc

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Pintsch Gas.

Pintsch Gas.

—Another commercial adaptation of oil gas is that known as Blau gas. In this process of storage the gas is subjected to 100 atmospheres of pressure—about 1500 pounds. This pressure is sufficient to liquefy the gas and as a result a large amount can be transported in a relatively small space. According to Fulweiler 1 gallon of the liquefied gas will yield about 28 cubic feet of the expanded gas and there will remain a residue that may run up to 9 per cent....

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Blau Gas.

Blau Gas.

—When the vapor of water is brought into contact with incandescent carbon, the water is decomposed and sufficient carbon is absorbed to produce a fuel gas. Its manufacture depends on the decomposition that takes place when steam is blown into a bed of incandescent coal. The gas made by this reaction is a water gas, but due to the fact that when burned it gives a blue flame, it is known as “blue gas.” It has a heating value of about 300 B.t.u. per cubic foot, and as compared with coal gas which g

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Water Gas.

Water Gas.

The following table as stated by Fulweiler gives the heating values of the gases commonly used for domestic purposes in British thermal units per cubic foot. The cost and calorific values as computed by Dr. Willard of the State Agricultural College of Kansas, given below, shows the relative values of various kinds of domestic fuels. The relatively high heat value of Blau gas (1704 B.t.u.) and the fact that it may be reduced to a liquid form for transportation has resulted in the manufacture of s

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Measurement of Gas.

Measurement of Gas.

—When gas of any kind is purchased from a manufacturing company, the amount used is measured by a gas meter, located at the point where the gas main enters the building. The readings of the meter are taken by the company at stated intervals and the amount registered is charged to the account of the consumer. Gas is sold in cubic feet and is so registered by the meter. The price is quoted by the manufacturers at a definite rate per thousand cubic feet. The difference between the last two readings

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Gas Meters.

Gas Meters.

—The gas meter as ordinarily used is shown in Fig. 177. In Fig. 178 the same meter is shown with the top and front exposed. The meter is operated by the pressure of the gas which enters at the inlet pipe on the left-hand side of the meter as you face the index. The gas from this pipe comes into the valve chamber and passes alternately into the diaphragms and their chambers, as the valve ports V are opened and closed by the action of the meter. The movement of the valve in opening the port which

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LIGHTING AND HEATING WITH GASOLINE

LIGHTING AND HEATING WITH GASOLINE

The extended use of gasoline as a lighting and heating agent, has brought about the development of a great number of mechanical devices that are intended to furnish the house with an efficient source of illumination and at the same time provide the kitchen with a convenient and relatively inexpensive fuel. These machines are generally simple in mechanical construction and so designed as to eliminate most of the dangers involved in the use of gasoline. In operation, they require a minimum amount

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THE COLD-PROCESS GAS MACHINE

THE COLD-PROCESS GAS MACHINE

The gas machine of the cold-process type is so constructed that air is forced through a tank or carburetor, containing gasoline and remains in its presence until saturated with gasoline vapor. This saturated air is afterward diluted with additional air, to produce a quality of gas that contains proportions of air and gasoline vapor which will produce complete combustion when burned with an open flame. Combustion is a rapid chemical change in which heat is evolved due to the union of carbon and o

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THE HOLLOW-WIRE SYSTEM OF GASOLINE LIGHTING AND HEATING

THE HOLLOW-WIRE SYSTEM OF GASOLINE LIGHTING AND HEATING

The hollow-wire system of gasoline lighting possesses the advantage of simplicity in construction and ease of installation that makes it attractive, particularly for use in small dwellings. The ease with which plants of this character are installed in buildings already constructed and its relatively low cost has made it a popular means of lighting. The same principle as that used in the hollow-wire system is applied to portable gasoline lamps in which a remarkably convenient and brilliant lamp i

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ACETYLENE-GAS MACHINES

ACETYLENE-GAS MACHINES

Acetylene is a gas that is generated when water is absorbed by calcium carbide, after the manner in which carbonic acid gas is evolved when lime slakes with water, but with the liberation of a larger amount of the combustible gas. Calcium carbide is a product resulting from the union of lime and coke, fused in an electric furnace to form a grayish-brown mass. It is brittle and more or less crystalline in structure and looks much like stone. It will not burn except when heated with oxygen. A cubi

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Incandescent Electric Lamps.

Incandescent Electric Lamps.

—Anything made in the form of an illuminating device, in which the lighting element is rendered incandescent by electricity, may properly be called an incandescent lamp, whether the medium is incandescent gas as in the Moore lamp, an incandescent vapor as the Cooper Hewitt mercury-vapor lamp, or the incandescent filament of carbon or metal such as is universally used for lighting. From the year 1879, when Mr. Edison announced the perfection of the incandescent electric lamp, until 1903, when for

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The Mazda Lamp.

The Mazda Lamp.

—The trade name for the lamp giving the greatest efficiency is Mazda. The term is taken as a symbol of efficiency in electric incandescent lighting. At present the Mazda is the tungsten-filament lamp, but should there be found some other more efficient means of lighting, which can take its place to greater advantage, that will become the Mazda lamp. —The incandescent lamps are usually rated in light-giving properties by their value in horizontal candlepower. This represents the mean value of the

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Candlepower.

Candlepower.

The light given out by an incandescent lamp is not the same in all directions. In making comparisons it is necessary to define the position from which the light of the lamps is taken. The horizontal candlepower affords a fairly exact means of comparing lamps which have the same shape of filament, but for different kinds of lamps it does not give a true comparison. The spherical candlepower is used to compare lamps of different construction as this gives the mean value at all points of a sphere s

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Lamp Labels.

Lamp Labels.

—For many years all incandescent lamps were rated in candlepower and were made in sizes 8, 16, 32, etc., candlepower. On the label was printed the voltage at which the lamp was intended to operate, and also the candlepower it was supposed to develop. Thus 110 v., 16 cp. indicated that when used on 110-volt circuit, the lamp would give 16 candlepower of light. This label in no way indicated the amount of energy expended. With the development of the more efficient filaments came a tendency to labe

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Illumination.

Illumination.

—The development of high-efficiency lamps has caused a radical change in the methods of illumination. With cheaper light came the desire to more nearly approximate the effect of daylight in illumination. This has brought into use indirect illumination, in which the light from the lamp is diffused by reflection from the ceiling and walls of the room. Illuminating engineering is now a business that has to do with placing of lamps to the greatest advantage in lighting any desired space. In large an

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The Foot-candle.

The Foot-candle.

—A light giving 1 candlepower, placed in the center of a sphere of 1 foot radius illuminates a sphere, the area of which is 4 × 3.1416 or 12.57 square feet. The intensity of light on each square foot is denoted as a candle-foot. The candle-foot is the standard of illumination on any surface. The quantity of light used in illuminating each square foot of the sphere is called a lumen. A light of 1 candlepower will therefore produce an intensity of 1 candle-foot over 12.57 square feet and give 12.5

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The Lumen.

The Lumen.

To find the number of lamps required for lighting any space, the area in square feet is multiplied by the required intensity in foot-candles, to obtain the total necessary lumens, and the amount thus obtained is divided by the effective lumens per lamp. The bulletins of the Columbia Incandescent Lamp Works gives the following method of calculating the number of lamps required to light a given space: Number of lamps = ( S × I )/(Effective lumens per lamp) S (square feet) × I (required illuminatio

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Reflectors.

Reflectors.

—The character and form of reflectors have much to do with the effective distribution of the light produced by the lamp. The most efficient form of reflectors are made of glass and designed to project the light in the desired direction. The illustration in Fig. 219, marked open reflector, shows the characteristic features of reflectors designed for special purposes. They are made of prismatic glass fashioned into such form as will produce the desired effect and at the same time transmit and diff

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Choice of Reflector.

Choice of Reflector.

Where an intense light on a small area directly below the lamp is desired, a focusing reflector is used. The diameter of the circle thus intensely lighted is about one-half the height of the lamp above the plane considered. Focusing reflectors are used in vestibules or rooms of unusually high ceilings. The various other fixtures of Fig. 219 that are designated as reflectors are in some cases only a means of diffusion of light. In the use of the high-efficiency gas-filled lamps the light is too b

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Lamp Transformers.

Lamp Transformers.

—Lamps of the Mazda type, constructed to work at the usual commercial voltages, are made in low-power forms to consume as little as 10 watts; but owing to the difficulty of arranging a suitable filament for the smaller sizes of lamps, less voltage is required to insure successful operation. The lamps for this purpose are of the type used in connection with batteries and require 1 or more volts to produce the desired illumination. When these little lamps are used on a commercial circuit, the redu

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Units of Electrical Measurement.

Units of Electrical Measurement.

—The general application of electricity has brought into common use the terms necessary in its measurement and units of quantity by which it is sold. The volt, ampere and ohm are terms that are used to express the conditions of the electric circuit; the watt and the kilowatt are units that are employed in measuring its quantity in commercial usage. The use of these units in actual problems is the most satisfactory method of appreciating their application. As already explained the volt is the uni

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Miniature Lamps.

Miniature Lamps.

—Miniature electric lamps include all that are not used for general illuminating purposes. The term applies more particularly to the form of the base than to the voltage or candlepower of the filament. There are three general classes of these lamps: candelabra and decorative, that operate on lighting circuits of 100 to 130 volts and are usually intended for decorative purposes; general battery lamps used for flash lights; and lamps for automobiles and electric-vehicle service. Candelabra screw b

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Effect of Voltage Variations.

Effect of Voltage Variations.

—Voltage variation may be temporary, due to changing load in the circuit, or in constantly overloaded circuits the voltage may be constantly below normal. The change in electric pressure affects in a considerable degree the amount of light given by the lamp. As an example, a 5 per cent. drop from the normal voltage will cause a decrease of 31 per cent. in the amount of light given. This means that if a lamp is working on a circuit of 110 volts and the voltage from any cause were to drop to 104½

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Turn-down Electric Lamps.

Turn-down Electric Lamps.

Turn-down lamps of the latter form are made in several styles, the chief points of difference being in the method of changing the contact from the high-to the low-power filament. In Fig. 222 a sectional view shows the “pull-string” form of lamp in which the parts are exposed. The long filament H and the smaller one L represent two individual lamps of different lighting power. The change in light is made from one to the other by pulling the string which is attached to a switch in the socket and w

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The Dim-a-lite.

The Dim-a-lite.

—In another form of turn-down lamp the change in amount of light is produced by external resistance in the circuit. The resistance is furnished by a coil of wire which is enclosed in a special lamp socket. It possesses the advantage as a turn-down lamp in a number of changes of light. The added resistance in a socket decreases the flow of current and, therefore, the filament gives less light. The resistance wire is divided into a number of sections and contact with the terminals of these section

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Gas-filled Lamps.

Gas-filled Lamps.

—Until 1913 the filaments of all Mazda lamps operated in a vacuum. The vacuum serving the purpose of preventing oxidation and at the same time it reduced the energy loss to the least amount. It was found, however, under some conditions of construction that lamps filled with inert gas gave a higher efficiency and more satisfactory service than those of the vacuum type. In this construction, the filament is operated at a temperature much higher than that of the vacuum lamp and as a consequence giv

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Miniature Tungsten Lamps.

Miniature Tungsten Lamps.

110 volts × 0.09 + ampere = 10 watts. Since 10-watt lamps are the smallest units that may be used on 110-volt circuits, their employment in smaller sizes must be such as will give more stable filaments. This is possible when the lamps are used at lower voltage. A 10-watt lamp on a 10-volt circuit will require an ampere of current. 10 volts × 1 ampere = 10 watts. A filament suitable for an ampere of current is shorter and heavier than that of the 110-volt lamp and therefore furnishes a good form

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Flash Lights.

Flash Lights.

—These are portable electric lamps composed of a miniature incandescent bulb, which with one or more dry cells are enclosed in a frame to suit the purpose of their use. They are made in pocket sizes or in form to be conveniently carried in the hand and are convenient and efficient lamps wherever a small amount of light is required for a short time. The electricity for operating the lamp is supplied by a battery of dry cells (to be described later), or by a single dry cell. In each case the incan

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The Electric Flat-iron.

The Electric Flat-iron.

—The changes that have been made in domestic appliances by the extended use of electricity have brought many innovations but none are more pronounced than the improvements made in the domestic flat-iron. It was the first of the household heating devices to receive universal recognition and its place as a domestic utility is firmly established. The relatively high cost of heat as generated through electric energy is in a great measure counterbalanced in the flat-iron by high efficiency in its use

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The Electric Toaster.

The Electric Toaster.

—As shown in Fig. 229 the toaster is made of a series of heating elements mounted on mica frames and supported on a porcelain base. It is an example of heating by exposed wires and direct radiation. The heaters H are coils of flat resistance wire that are wound on wedge-shaped pieces of mica. They are supported on a wire frame that is formed to receive slices of bread on each side of the heaters. The attachment piece A and the material of the heater is similar in construction to that of the flat

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Motors.

Motors.

—As a means of developing mechanical power in small units, the electric motor has made possible its application in many household uses that were formerly performed entirely by manual labor. As a domestic utility electrical power is generated at a cost that is the least expensive of all its applications. As a means of lighting and heating electricity has had to compete with established methods and has won place because of the advantages it possesses over that of cost. In the development of domest

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Fuse Plugs.

Fuse Plugs.

—Every electric circuit is liable to occurrences known as short-circuiting or “shorting.” This is a technical term describing a condition where, by accident or design, the wires of a circuit are in any way connected by a low-resistance conductor or by coming directly into contact with each other. In case of shorting, the resistance is practically all removed and the amount of current which flows through the circuit is so great as to produce a dangerous amount of heat in the wires. If the coverin

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Electric Heaters.

Electric Heaters.

—All electric heating devices—whether in the form of hot plates, ovens, stoves or other domestic heating apparatus-possess heating elements somewhat similar to the flat-iron or the toaster. The construction of the heating element will depend on the use for which the heater is intended and the temperature to be maintained. Hot plates similar to that of Fig. 235 are made singly or two or more in combination. When the heat is to be transmitted directly by radiation the heating coils are open, as wi

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Intercommunicating Telephones.

Intercommunicating Telephones.

—This form of telephone is used over short distances such as from room to room in buildings or for connecting the house with the stable, garage, etc. It is complete, in that it possesses the same features as any other telephone but the signal is an electric call-bell instead of the polarized electric bell used in commercial telephone service. Any telephone is made to perform two functions: (1) that of a signal with which to call attention; and (2) the apparatus required to transmit spoken words.

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Electric Signals.

Electric Signals.

—Electrical signaling devices for household use, in the form of bells and buzzers, are made in a great variety of forms and sizes to suit every condition of requirement. The vibrating mechanism of the doorbell is used in all other household signals except that of the magneto telephone. It is an application of the electromagnet, in which the magnetism is applied to vibrate a tapper against the rim of a bell. A bell system consists of the gong with its mechanism for vibrating the armature, an elec

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Buzzers.

Buzzers.

—Electric bells are often objectionable as signal calls because of their clamor, but with the removal of the bell the vibrating armature serves equally well as a signal but without the undesirable noise. With the bell and tapper removed the operating mechanism of such a device works with a sound that has given to them the name of buzzers. Fig. 241 illustrates the form of an iron-cased buzzer for ordinary duty. The working parts are enclosed by a stamped steel cover that may be easily removed. Th

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Burglar Alarms.

Burglar Alarms.

—A burglar alarm is any device that will give notice of the attempted entrance of an intruder. It is usually in the form of a bell or buzzer placed in circuit with a battery, as a doorbell system, in which the contact piece is placed to detect the opening of a door or window. The contact is arranged to start the alarm whenever the window or door is opened beyond a certain point. The attachment shown in Fig. 242 is intended to form the contact for a window. It is set in the window frame so that t

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Annunciators.

Annunciators.

—It is often convenient for a bell or buzzer to serve two or more push buttons placed in different parts of the house. In order that there may be means of designating the push button used—when the bell is rung—an annunciator is provided. This is a box arranged with an electric bell and the required number of pointers and fingers corresponding to the push buttons. In Fig. 246 is shown an annunciator with which two push buttons are served by the single bell. The annunciator is placed at the most c

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Bell-ringing Transformers.

Bell-ringing Transformers.

—The general employment of alternating electricity for all commercial service requiring distant transmission is because of the possibility of changing the voltage to suit any condition. The energy transmitted is determined by the amperes of current carried by the wires and the volts of pressure by which it is impelled. The product of these two factors determines the watts of energy transmitted. 110 volts × 1 ampere = 110 watts. If the voltage is raised to say ten times the original intensity wit

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The Recording Wattmeter.

The Recording Wattmeter.

—To determine the amount of electricity used by consumers, each circuit is provided with some form of wattmeter. These meters might be more correctly called watt-hour meters since they register the watt-hours of electrical energy that pass through the circuit. In the common type of meter, the recording apparatus in composed of a motor and a registering dial. The motor is intended to rotate at a rate that is proportional to the amount of passing current. An example of this device is the Thompson

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To Read the Meter.

To Read the Meter.

— First , note carefully the unit in which the dial of the meter reads. The figures above the dial circle indicate the value of one complete revolution of the pointer in that circle. Therefore, each division indicates one-tenth of the amount marked above or below the circle. Second , in reading, note the direction of rotation of the pointers. Commencing at the right, the first pointer rotates in the direction of the hands of a clock (clockwise); the second rotates counter-clockwise; the third, c

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EXAMPLES OF METER READINGS

EXAMPLES OF METER READINGS

Fig. 253 a shows an example of an ordinary dial reading. Commencing at the first right-hand pointer, Fig. 253 c , it is noted that the last figure passed over by the pointer is 1. The next circle to the left shows the figure last passed to be 2, bearing in mind that the direction of the rotation of this pointer is counter-clockwise. The last figure passed by the next pointer to the left is 1, while that passed by the last pointer to the left is obviously 9. The reading to be set down, therefore,

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PERIODIC TESTS

PERIODIC TESTS

Rule 17. —Each watt-hour meter shall be tested according to the following schedule and adjusted whenever it is found to be in error more than 1 per cent., the tests both before and after adjustment being made at approximately three-quarters and one-tenth of the rated capacity of the meter. Meters operated at low power-factor shall also be tested at approximately the minimum power-factor under which they will be required to operate. The tests shall be made by comparing the meter, while connected

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