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PREFACE
PREFACE
It seems to the author that three kinds of work should be included in the elementary study of zoology. These three kinds are: ( a ) observations in the field covering the habits and behavior of animals and their relations to their physical surroundings, to plants, and to each other; ( b ) work in the laboratory, consisting of the study of animal structure by dissection and the observation of live specimens in cages and aquaria; and ( c ) work in the recitation- or lecture-room, where the signifi
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PART I STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS
PART I STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS
Our familiar knowledge of animals and their life, 1. —Zoology and its divisions, 2. —A first course in Zoology, 3. [Laboratory exercise], 5. —External structure, 5. —Internal structure, 7. Organs and functions, 14. —The animal body a machine, 14. —The essential functions or life-processes, 15. [Laboratory exercise], 17. —External structure, 17. —Internal structure, 21. Difference between crayfish and toad, 26. —Resemblances between crayfish and toad, 27. —Modification of functions and structure
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PART II SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY
PART II SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY
[Laboratory exercise and recitation], 65. —Basis and significance of classification, 65. —Importance of development in determining classification, 67. —Scientific names, 68. —An example of classification, 68. —Species, 69. —Genus, 70. —Family, 72. —Order, 72. —Class and branch, 73. Example: The bell animalcule (Vorticella sp.) [Laboratory exercise], 75. Other Protozoa. Form of body, 78. —Marine Protozoa, 80. Example: The Fresh-water sponge (Spongilla sp.) [Laboratory exercise], 84. Example: A ca
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PART III ANIMAL ECOLOGY
PART III ANIMAL ECOLOGY
The multiplication and crowding of animals, 404. —The struggle for existence, 406. —Variation and natural selection, 406. —Adaptation and adjustment to surroundings, 407. —Species forming, 408. —Artificial selection, 409. Social life and gregariousness, 410. —Communal life, 411. —Commensalism, 413. —Parasitism, 415. Use of color, 424. —General, variable, and special protective resemblance, 426. —Warning colors, terrifying appearances, and mimicry, 430. —Alluring coloration, 433. Geographical dis
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APPENDICES EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
APPENDICES EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
Equipment of pupils, 447. —Laboratory drawings and notes, 447. —Field observations and notes, 448. Equipment of laboratory, 450. —Collecting and preparing material for use in the laboratory, 451. —Obtaining marine animals, microscopic preparations, etc., 453. —Reference-books, 454. Live cages and aquaria, 457. —Making collections, 461. —Collecting and preserving insects, 463. —Collecting and preserving birds, 466. —Collecting and preserving mammals, 470. —Collecting and preserving other animals,
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THE STUDY OF ANIMALS AND THEIR LIFE
THE STUDY OF ANIMALS AND THEIR LIFE
Our familiar knowledge of animals and their life. —We are familiarly acquainted with dogs and cats; less familiarly probably with toads and crayfishes, and we have little more than a bare knowledge of the existence of such animals as seals and starfishes and reindeer. But what real knowledge of dogs and toads does our familiar acquaintanceship with them give? Certain habits of the dog are known to us: it eats, and eats certain kinds of food; it runs about; it responds to our calls or even to the
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THE GARDEN TOAD (Bufo lentiginosus)
THE GARDEN TOAD (Bufo lentiginosus)
Technical Note. —Although this description is written for the toad it will fit for the dissection of the frog. It will be found, after casting aside a few ungrounded prejudices, that the toad is the better for class dissection. Toads are best collected about dusk, when they can be picked up in almost any garden in town or in the country. During the spring many can be found in the ponds where they are breeding. To kill the toad place it in an air-tight vessel with a piece of cotton or cloth satur
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THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL BODY
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL BODY
Organs and functions. —The body of the toad is composed of various parts, such as the lungs, the heart, the muscles, the eyes, the stomach, and others. The life of the toad consists of the performance by it of various processes, such as breathing, digesting food, circulating blood, moving, seeing, and others. These various processes are performed by the various parts of the body. The parts of the body are called organs , and the processes (or work) they perform are called their functions . The l
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THE CRAYFISH (Cambarus sp.)
THE CRAYFISH (Cambarus sp.)
Technical Note. —The crayfish, or crawfish, is found in most of the fresh-water ponds and streams of the United States. (It is not found east of the Hoosatonic River, Mass. In this region the lobster may be used. On the Pacific coast the crayfishes belong to the genus Astacus .) Crayfishes may be taken by a net baited with dead fish, or they may be caught in a trap made from a box with ends which open in, and baited with dead fish or animal refuse of any sort. This box should be placed in a pond
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THE MODIFICATION OF ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS
THE MODIFICATION OF ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS
Differences between crayfish and toad. —In the dissection of the crayfish one of the most important things in the study of zoology has been learned. It is plain that the crayfish has a body composed, like the toad's, of parts or organs, and that most of these organs, although differing much in appearance and actual structure from those of the toad, correspond to similarly named organs of the toad, and perform the same functions or processes, although with many striking differences, essentially i
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AMŒBA AND PARAMŒCIUM
AMŒBA AND PARAMŒCIUM
Amœba. — Technical Note. — Amœbæ are found in stagnant pools of water on the dead leaves, sticks and slime at the bottom. To obtain them, collect slime and water from various puddles in separate bottles and take them to the laboratory. Place a small drop of slime on a slide under a cover-glass. Examine under the low power first and note any small transparent or opalescent objects in the field. Examine these objects with the higher power and note that some are mere granular jelly-like specks, whi
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THE SINGLE-CELLED ANIMAL BODY.—PROTOPLASM AND THE CELL
THE SINGLE-CELLED ANIMAL BODY.—PROTOPLASM AND THE CELL
The single-celled body. —The study of Amœba and Paramœcium has made us acquainted with an animal body very different from that of the toad or the crayfish. These extraordinarily minute animals have a body so simple in its composition, compared with the toad's, that if the toad's body be taken for the type of the animal body, Amœba might readily be thought not to be an animal at all. The body of Amœba is not composed of organs, each with a particular function or work to perform. Whatever an Amœba
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CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF THE TOAD (OR FROG)
CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF THE TOAD (OR FROG)
The blood. — Technical Note. —The blood of a frog can be studied as it flows through the small vessels in the membranes between the toes while the animal is alive. Place a frog on a small flat board which has had a hole cut near one end, and with a piece of cloth bind it to the board. Spread the web between two toes over the hole in the board and keep it in place with pins. This done, examine the distended web under the compound microscope first with low then with higher power, and observe the b
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THE MANY-CELLED ANIMAL BODY.—DIFFERENTIATION OF THE CELL
THE MANY-CELLED ANIMAL BODY.—DIFFERENTIATION OF THE CELL
The many-celled animal body. —In the study of certain of the tissues and organs of the toad we have learned that the body of this animal is composed of many cells, thousands and thousands of these microscopic structural units being combined to form the whole toad. This many-celled or multicellular condition of the body is true of all the animals except the simplest, the unicellular Protozoa. Corals, starfishes, worms, clams, crabs, insects, fishes, frogs, reptiles, birds, and mammals, all the va
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HYDRA
HYDRA
Technical Note. — Hydra lives in fresh water, attached to stones, sticks, or decayed leaves. It can be found in most open fresh-water ponds not too stagnant, often attached to Chara . There are two species occurring commonly, H. viridis , the green Hydra , and H. fuscus , the brown or flesh-colored Hydra . Both are very small forms and have to be looked for carefully. Specimens should be brought to the laboratory, put into a large dish of water and left in the light. Hydra is best studied alive.
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THE SIMPLEST MANY-CELLED ANIMALS
THE SIMPLEST MANY-CELLED ANIMALS
Cell differentiation and body organization in Hydra. —From the examination of Hydra we have learned that there are true many-celled animals which are much less complex in structure than the toad and crayfish. The body of Hydra , like the body of the toad, is composed of many cells, but these cells are of only a few different kinds; that is, show but little differentiation. There is relatively little division of the body into distinct organs. Still, certain parts of the body devote themselves pri
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOAD
DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOAD
Technical Note. —As the work of this chapter, or some similar work in getting acquainted with the postembryonic development of a many-celled animal, should be done early in the course, and as most schools open in the fall, it will perhaps be impossible to make this first study of development from live specimens in the field. In such case the examination of a series of prepared specimens, previously obtained by the teacher, must be resorted to. In the spring the development of several kinds of an
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MULTIPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT.—MULTIPLICATION OF ONE-CELLED ANIMALS
MULTIPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT.—MULTIPLICATION OF ONE-CELLED ANIMALS
Multiplication. —We know that any living animal has parents; that is, has been produced by other animals which may still be living or be now dead or, as with Amœba , may have changed, by division, into new individuals. Individuals die, but before death, they produce other individuals like themselves. If they did not, their kind or species would die with them. This production of new animals constantly going on is called the reproduction or multiplication of animals. The process is well called mul
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THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
Basis and significance of classification. —It is the common knowledge of all of us that animals are classified: that is, that the different kinds are arranged in the mind of the zoologist and in the books of natural history, in various groups, and that these various groups are of different rank or degree of comprehensiveness. A group of high rank or great comprehensiveness includes groups of lower rank, and each of these includes groups of still lower rank, and so on, for several degrees. For ex
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BRANCH PROTOZOA: THE ONE-CELLED ANIMALS
BRANCH PROTOZOA: THE ONE-CELLED ANIMALS
Of this group the structure and life-history of the Amœba ( Amœba sp.) and the Slipper Animalcule ( Paramœcium sp.) have already been treated in Chapter VI . Another example is the Technical Note. —Specimens of Vorticella may usually be found in the same water with Amœba and Paramœcium . The individuals live together in colonies, a single colony appearing to the naked eye as a tiny whitish mould-like tuft or spot on the surface of some leaf or stem or root in the water. Touch such a spot with a
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BRANCH PORIFERA: THE SPONGES
BRANCH PORIFERA: THE SPONGES
Technical Note. —Fresh-water sponges may perhaps not be readily found in the neighborhood of the school, but they occur over most of the United States, and careful searching will usually result in the finding of specimens. They are compact, solid-looking masses, sometimes lobed, resting on and attached to rocks, logs, timbers, etc., in clear water in creeks, ponds, or bayous. They are creamy, yellowish-brown or even greenish in color and resemble some cushion-like plant far more than any of the
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BRANCH CŒLENTERATA: THE POLYPS, SEA-ANEMONES, CORALS, AND JELLYFISHES
BRANCH CŒLENTERATA: THE POLYPS, SEA-ANEMONES, CORALS, AND JELLYFISHES
The structure and life-history of an example of the polyps (the Fresh-water Hydra, Hydra sp.) has been studied in Chapters X and XI . Technical Note. —The teacher should have, if possible, several pieces of coral and a few specimens of Cœlenterates in alcohol or formalin, which will show the external character, at least, of these animals (see account of laboratory equipment, p. 450 ). If the school is on the coast, the pupils should be shown the sea-anemones of the tide-pools. The animals which
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BRANCH ECHINODERMATA: STARFISHES, SEA-URCHINS, SEA-CUCUMBERS
BRANCH ECHINODERMATA: STARFISHES, SEA-URCHINS, SEA-CUCUMBERS
Technical Note. —The species of Asterias are widely distributed on both coasts of the United States and may be procured on almost any rocky shore at low tide. Teachers in inland schools can obtain preserved material from the dealers mentioned on p. 453. Most of the specimens should be placed in alcohol or 4% formalin. If fresh material can be had it is well to place at least one specimen for each student in a 20% solution of nitric acid in water for two or three hours, when all of the calcareous
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BRANCH VERMES:[8] THE WORMS
BRANCH VERMES:[8] THE WORMS
Technical Note. —Obtain live earthworms of large size, killing some in 30% alcohol and hardening and preserving them in 80% alcohol, and bringing others alive to the laboratory. The worms may be found during the daytime by digging, or at night by searching with a lantern. They often come above ground in the daytime after a heavy rain. Live specimens may be kept in the laboratory in flower-pots filled with soil. "They may be fed on bits of raw meat, preferably fat, bits of onion, celery, cabbage,
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BRANCH ARTHROPODA: CRUSTACEANS, CENTIPEDS, INSECTS, AND SPIDERS
BRANCH ARTHROPODA: CRUSTACEANS, CENTIPEDS, INSECTS, AND SPIDERS
The great branch Arthropoda includes a host of familiar animals. It contains more species than any other branch of the animal kingdom. To it belong the crayfishes, shrimps, crabs, lobsters, water-fleas, and other animals which compose the class Crustacea; the centipeds and thousand-legged worms which compose the class Myriapoda; the true or six-footed insects forming the class Insecta, which includes nearly two-thirds of all the known species of animals; and the scorpions, mites, ticks, and spid
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Class Crustacea: Crayfishes, Crabs, Lobsters, Etc.
Class Crustacea: Crayfishes, Crabs, Lobsters, Etc.
Structure. —The structure of the crayfish has been already studied (see Chapter IV and figs. 3 and 4 ). Life-history and habits. —Crayfish frequent fresh-water lakes, rivers, and springs in most parts of the United States. Many of them perish whenever the small prairie ponds dry up. But some burrow into the earth when the dry season comes. There may be noticed in meadows where water stands for certain seasons of the year many scattered holes with slight elevations of mud about them. These are mo
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BRANCH ARTHROPODA (continued); CLASS INSECTA: THE INSECTS
BRANCH ARTHROPODA (continued); CLASS INSECTA: THE INSECTS
Technical Note. —Locusts or grasshoppers are common and familiar insects all over the country. The genus Melanoplus includes numerous species, one or more of which are to be found in almost any locality. The common red-legged locust ( M. femur-rubrum ) of the East, the Rocky Mountain migratory locust ( M. spretus ), of the West, the large differential ( M. differentialis ) and two-striped ( M. bivittatus ) locusts of the Southwest, are especially common species. All the members of the genus have
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MOLLUSCA: THE MOLLUSCS
MOLLUSCA: THE MOLLUSCS
Structure (fig. 103 ).— Technical Note. —The fresh-water or river mussel lives commonly in the streams and lakes or ponds in the United States. It frequents muddy or sandy bottoms. Specimens can often be secured with a long-handled rake from the shore or picked up in shallow streams with the hand. If possible to keep the animals alive until ready for use, some of their habits may be observed. Place them in a tub or trough with water and mud; when they have settled themselves put some powdered ca
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BRANCH CHORDATA: THE VERTEBRATES, ASCIDIANS, ETC.
BRANCH CHORDATA: THE VERTEBRATES, ASCIDIANS, ETC.
The branch Chordata includes all the backboned animals or vertebrates, comprising the fishes, salamanders, frogs and toads, lizards, crocodiles, turtles and snakes, birds, and all the quadrupeds or mammals, and includes also a few small unfamiliar ocean animals which do not look at all like the backboned animals, but which agree with them in possessing a peculiar structure called the notochord. This notochord consists of a series or cord of cells extending longitudinally through the body from he
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BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued): CLASS PISCES (THE FISHES)
BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued): CLASS PISCES (THE FISHES)
Technical Note. —The species of sunfish named, or some closely related species, can be obtained in any brook or stream in the United States. Gibbosus lives in all streams north of Dubuque, Chicago, Pittsburg, and along the eastern coast north of Charleston. Closely allied species live in all the other parts of the country except in the higher Rocky Mountains west of Bismarck, Pueblo, and Santa Fe. One species is found in the streams of California, but none occurs in Washington or Oregon. In the
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BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued). CLASS BATRACHIA: THE BATRACHIANS
BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued). CLASS BATRACHIA: THE BATRACHIANS
The structure, life-history, and habits of the garden-toad ( Bufo lentiginosus ) have already been studied (see Chapter II and Chapter XII ). The class Batrachia includes the animals familiarly known as cœcilians, sirens, mud-puppies, salamanders, toads, and frogs. Although differing plainly from fishes in appearance and habits, the batrachians are really closely related to them, resembling them in all but a few essential characters. Among the distinctive characters of batrachians may be noted t
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BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued). CLASS REPTILIA: THE SNAKES, LIZARDS, TURTLES, CROCODILES, ETC.
BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued). CLASS REPTILIA: THE SNAKES, LIZARDS, TURTLES, CROCODILES, ETC.
Technical Note. —Garter snakes may be found almost anywhere during the spring and summer months. If possible each student should have a specimen, but in case it is difficult to get enough snakes two students can use a single specimen. If garter snakes are rare, take any other snake. Snakes will live a long time without feeding and specimens should be kept alive until ready to use. Kill with chloroform as directed for the toad (p. 5). After completing the study of the external characters place ea
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BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued). CLASS AVES: THE BIRDS
BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued). CLASS AVES: THE BIRDS
Technical Note. —The English sparrow may be found now in cities and villages all over the United States. It has become a veritable pest, and the killing of the few needed for the laboratory may be looked on as desirable rather than deplorable, as is the killing of birds in almost all other cases. The males have a black throat, with the other head-markings strong and contrasting (black, brown, and white), while the females have a uniform grayish and brownish coloration on the head. Specimens are
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BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued). CLASS MAMMALIA: THE MAMMALS
BRANCH CHORDATA (Continued). CLASS MAMMALIA: THE MAMMALS
Technical Note. —It is best to catch specimens alive in a good trap. A live trap well baited and placed in some old granary should furnish plenty for class use. White mice can often be obtained at "bird-stores." When mice are not procurable, use rats. A rat is perhaps preferable on account of its size, but all essential structures can readily be made out in the mouse. Specimens should be killed by chloroform as described for the toad, p. 5. Structure (fig. 147 ).—Compare the external characters
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THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, ADAPTATION, AND SPECIES-FORMING
THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, ADAPTATION, AND SPECIES-FORMING
Technical Note. —Multiplication, or increase by geometric ratio, among animals can be illustrated by noting the many eggs laid by a single female moth or beetle or fly or mosquito or any other common insect (or almost any other non-mammalian animal). The production of many live young by each female rose aphid can be readily seen; the number of young in a litter of kittens or pups or rabbits is a good illustration. From this geometric increase it is obvious that there must be a great crowding of
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SOCIAL AND COMMUNAL LIFE, COMMENSALISM AND PARASITISM
SOCIAL AND COMMUNAL LIFE, COMMENSALISM AND PARASITISM
Social life and gregariousness. — Technical Note. —Students should refer to examples of gregariousness from their own observations of animals. The roosting together of crows and of blackbirds; the gathering of swallows preparatory to migration; the flocking of geese and ducks, with leaders, in their migratory flights, all can be readily observed. From observation or general reading students will be more or less familiar with prairie-dog villages, beaver-dams and marshes, the one-time great herds
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COLOR AND PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCES
COLOR AND PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCES
Technical Note. —For an appreciation of the reality of protective resemblances observations must be made in the field. Examples are easily found. Locusts, katydids, green caterpillars, lizards, crouching rabbits, and brooding birds are readily observed instances of general protective resemblance. For examples of variable resemblance examine specimens of a single locust species taken from different localities; the individuals of the various species of the genus Trimerotropis show much variation t
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THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS
Technical Note. —The larger aspects or phenomena of the distribution of animals over the earth on land and in sea cannot be studied personally in the field by the student, but many local features of distribution can be so observed and studied. The restriction of certain kinds of animals to certain kinds of habitat, the presence and character and effectiveness of barriers, some of the modes of distribution, the presence and successful life of introduced foreign species such as the black and brown
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APPENDICES EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
APPENDICES EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
[Pg 446] [Pg 447]...
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EQUIPMENT AND NOTES OF PUPILS
EQUIPMENT AND NOTES OF PUPILS
Equipment of pupils. —Each pupil should have a laboratory note-book of about 8 × 10 inches, opening at the end, in which both drawings and notes can be made. The paper should be unruled and of good quality (not too soft). Each pupil should have also instruments of his own as follows: scalpel, pair of small scissors, spring forceps, pair of dissecting-needles, small glass pipette, and paper of ribbon-pins for pinning out specimens. The cost of this outfit need not exceed $1.00. The laboratory sho
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LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
Equipment of laboratory. —The equipment of the laboratory or classroom will, of necessity, depend upon the opportunities afforded the teacher by the school officers to provide such facilities as instruments, books, and charts. If dissections are to be seriously and properly made, however, some equipment is indispensable. Flat-topped tables, not over 30 inches high, a few compound microscopes (one is much better than none), as many simple lenses, or, far better, simple dissecting-microscopes, as
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REARING ANIMALS AND MAKING COLLECTIONS
REARING ANIMALS AND MAKING COLLECTIONS
Much good work in observing the behavior and life-history of some kinds of animals can be done by keeping them alive in the schoolroom under conditions simulating those to which they are exposed in nature. The growth and development of frogs and toads from egg to adult, as well as their feeding habits and general behavior, can all be observed in the schoolroom as explained in Chapter XII . Harmless snakes are easily kept in glass-covered boxes; snails and slugs are contented dwellers indoors; ce
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