A Treatise On Painting - free ebook by da Vinci Leonardo

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A Treatise On Painting

da Vinci Leonardo

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A TREATISE ON PAINTING,

A TREATISE ON PAINTING,

BY LEONARDO DA VINCI. Printed by S. Gosnell , Little Queen Street, Holborn, London. A TREATISE ON PAINTING, BY LEONARDO DA VINCI . FAITHFULLY TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL ITALIAN, AND NOW FIRST DIGESTED UNDER PROPER HEADS, By JOHN FRANCIS RIGAUD, Esq . ACADEMICIAN OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF PAINTING AT LONDON, AND ALSO OF THE ACADEMIA CLEMENTINA AT BOLOGNA, AND THE ROYAL ACADEMY AT STOCKHOLM. Illustrated with twenty-three Copper-plates, and other Figures. TO WHICH IS PREFIXED A NEW LIFE OF THE AUTH

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TABLE OF CHAPTERS.

TABLE OF CHAPTERS.

The Number at the End of each Title refers to the corresponding Chapter in the original Edition in Italian....

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PREFACE TO THE PRESENT TRANSLATION.

PREFACE TO THE PRESENT TRANSLATION.

The excellence of the following Treatise is so well known to all in any tolerable degree conversant with the Art of Painting, that it would be almost superfluous to say any thing respecting it, were it not that it here appears under the form of a new translation, of which some account may be expected. Of the original Work, which is in reality a selection from the voluminous manuscript collections of the Author, both in folio and quarto, of all such passages as related to Painting, no edition app

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THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI.

THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI.

Leonardo da Vinci, the Author of the following Treatise, was the natural son of Pietro da Vinci, a notary of Vinci, in Tuscany [i1] , a village situated in the valley of Arno, a little below Florence, and was born in the year 1452 [i2] . Having discovered, when a child, a strong inclination and talent for painting, of which he had given proofs by several little drawings and sketches; his father one day accidentally took up some of them, and was induced to shew them to his friend Andrea Verocchio

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CATALOGUE OF THE WORKS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI.

CATALOGUE OF THE WORKS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI.

ARCHITECTURE. Many designs for plans and buildings , made by him in his youth [i111] . A model made by him for raising the roof of the church of St. John, at Florence [i112] . The house of the family of Melzi at Vaprio , supposed by Della Valle to be designed by Leonardo [i113] . MODELS and SCULPTURE. Some heads of laughing women , modelled by him in clay, in his youth [i114] . Some boys’ heads also, which appeared to have come from the hand of a master [i115] . Three figures in bronze , over th

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Chap. I.—What the young Student in Painting ought in the first Place to learn.

Chap. I.—What the young Student in Painting ought in the first Place to learn.

T he young student should, in the first place, acquire a knowledge of perspective, to enable him to give to every object its proper dimensions: after which, it is requisite that he be under the care of an able master, to accustom him, by degrees, to a good style of drawing the parts. Next, he must study Nature, in order to confirm and fix in his mind the reason of those precepts which he has learnt. He must also bestow some time in viewing the works of various old masters, to form his eye and ju

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Chap. II.—Rule for a young Student in Painting.

Chap. II.—Rule for a young Student in Painting.

The organ of sight is one of the quickest, and takes in at a single glance an infinite variety of forms; notwithstanding which, it cannot perfectly comprehend more than one object at a time. For example, the reader, at one look over this page, immediately perceives it full of different characters; but he cannot at the same moment distinguish each letter, much less can he comprehend their meaning. He must consider it word by word, and line by line, if he be desirous of forming a just notion of th

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Chap. III.—How to discover a young Man’s Disposition for Painting.

Chap. III.—How to discover a young Man’s Disposition for Painting.

Many are very desirous of learning to draw, and are very fond of it, who are, notwithstanding, void of a proper disposition for it. This may be known by their want of perseverance; like boys, who draw every thing in a hurry, never finishing, or shadowing....

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Chap. IV.—Of Painting, and its Divisions.

Chap. IV.—Of Painting, and its Divisions.

Painting is divided into two principal parts. The first is the figure, that is, the lines which distinguish the forms of bodies, and their component parts. The second is the colour contained within those limits....

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Chap. V.—Division of the Figure.

Chap. V.—Division of the Figure.

The form of bodies is divided into two parts; that is, the proportion of the members to each other, which must correspond with the whole; and the motion, expressive of what passes in the mind of the living figure....

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Chap. VI.—Proportion of Members.

Chap. VI.—Proportion of Members.

The proportion of members is again divided into two parts, viz. equality, and motion. By equality is meant (besides the measure corresponding with the whole), that you do not confound the members of a young subject with those of old age, nor plump ones with those that are lean; and that, moreover, you do not blend the robust and firm muscles of man with feminine softness: that the attitudes and motions of old age be not expressed with the quickness and alacrity of youth; nor those of a female fi

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Chap. VII.—Of Dimensions in general.

Chap. VII.—Of Dimensions in general.

In general, the dimensions of the human body are to be considered in the length, and not in the breadth; because in the wonderful works of Nature, which we endeavour to imitate, we cannot in any species find any one part in one model precisely similar to the same part in another. Let us be attentive, therefore, to the variation of forms, and avoid all monstrosities of proportion; such as long legs united to short bodies, and narrow chests with long arms. Observe also attentively the measure of j

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Chap. VIII.—Motion, Changes, and Proportion of Members.

Chap. VIII.—Motion, Changes, and Proportion of Members.

The measures of the human body vary in each member, according as it is more or less bent, or seen in different views, increasing on one side as much as they diminish on the other....

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Chap. IX.—The Difference of Proportion between Children and grown Men.

Chap. IX.—The Difference of Proportion between Children and grown Men.

In men and children I find a great difference between the joints of the one and the other in the length of the bones. A man has the length of two heads from the extremity of one shoulder to the other, the same from the shoulder to the elbow, and from the elbow to the fingers; but the child has only one, because Nature gives the proper size first to the seat of the intellect, and afterwards to the other parts....

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Chap. X.—The Alterations in the Proportion of the human Body from Infancy to full Age.

Chap. X.—The Alterations in the Proportion of the human Body from Infancy to full Age.

A man , in his infancy, has the breadth of his shoulders equal to the length of the face, and to the length of the arm from the shoulder to the elbow, when the arm is bent [2] . It is the same again from the lower belly to the knee, and from the knee to the foot. But, when a man is arrived at the period of his full growth, every one of these dimensions becomes double in length, except the face, which, with the top of the head, undergoes but very little alteration in length. A well-proportioned a

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Chap. XI.—Of the Proportion of Members.

Chap. XI.—Of the Proportion of Members.

All the parts of any animal whatever must be correspondent with the whole. So that, if the body be short and thick, all the members belonging to it must be the same. One that is long and thin must have its parts of the same kind; and so of the middle size. Something of the same may be observed in plants, when uninjured by men or tempests; for when thus injured they bud and grow again, making young shoots from old plants, and by those means destroying their natural symmetry....

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Chap. XII.—That every Part be proportioned to its Whole.

Chap. XII.—That every Part be proportioned to its Whole.

If a man be short and thick, be careful that all his members be of the same nature, viz. short arms and thick, large hands, short fingers, with broad joints; and so of the rest....

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Chap. XIII.—Of the Proportion of the Members.

Chap. XIII.—Of the Proportion of the Members.

Measure upon yourself the proportion of the parts, and, if you find any of them defective, note it down, and be very careful to avoid it in drawing your own compositions. For this is reckoned a common fault in painters, to delight in the imitation of themselves....

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Chap. XIV.—The Danger of forming an erroneous Judgment in regard to the Proportion and Beauty of the Parts.

Chap. XIV.—The Danger of forming an erroneous Judgment in regard to the Proportion and Beauty of the Parts.

If the painter has clumsy hands, he will be apt to introduce them into his works, and so of any other part of his person, which may not happen to be so beautiful as it ought to be. He must, therefore, guard particularly against that self-love, or too good opinion of his own person, and study by every means to acquire the knowledge of what is most beautiful, and of his own defects, that he may adopt the one and avoid the other....

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Chap. XV.—Another Precept.

Chap. XV.—Another Precept.

The young painter must, in the first instance, accustom his hand to copying the drawings of good masters; and when his hand is thus formed, and ready, he should, with the advice of his director, use himself also to draw from relievos; according to the rules we shall point out in the treatise on drawing from relievos [4] ....

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Chap. XVI.—The Manner of drawing from Relievos, and rendering Paper fit for it.

Chap. XVI.—The Manner of drawing from Relievos, and rendering Paper fit for it.

When you draw from relievos, tinge your paper of some darkish demi-tint. And after you have made your outline, put in the darkest shadows, and, last of all, the principal lights, but sparingly, especially the smaller ones; because those are easily lost to the eye at a very moderate distance [5] ....

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Chap. XVII.—Of drawing from Casts or Nature.

Chap. XVII.—Of drawing from Casts or Nature.

In drawing from relievo, the draftsman must place himself in such a manner, as that the eye of the figure to be drawn be level with his own [6] ....

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Chap. XVIII.—To draw Figures from Nature.

Chap. XVIII.—To draw Figures from Nature.

Accustom yourself to hold a plummet in your hand, that you may judge of the bearing of the parts....

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Chap. XIX.—Of drawing from Nature.

Chap. XIX.—Of drawing from Nature.

When you draw from Nature, you must be at the distance of three times the height of the object; and when you begin to draw, form in your own mind a certain principal line (suppose a perpendicular); observe well the bearing of the parts towards that line; whether they intersect, are parallel to it, or oblique....

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Chap. XX.—Of drawing Academy Figures.

Chap. XX.—Of drawing Academy Figures.

When you draw from a naked model, always sketch in the whole of the figure, suiting all the members well to each other; and though you finish only that part which appears the best, have a regard to the rest, that, whenever you make use of such studies, all the parts may hang together. In composing your attitudes, take care not to turn the head on the same side as the breast, nor let the arm go in a line with the leg [7] . If the head turn towards the right shoulder, the parts must be lower on th

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Chap. XXI.—Of studying in the Dark, on first waking in the Morning, and before going to sleep.

Chap. XXI.—Of studying in the Dark, on first waking in the Morning, and before going to sleep.

I have experienced no small benefit, when in the dark and in bed, by retracing in my mind the outlines of those forms which I had previously studied, particularly such as had appeared the most difficult to comprehend and retain; by this method they will be confirmed and treasured up in the memory....

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Chap. XXII.—Observations on drawing Portraits.

Chap. XXII.—Observations on drawing Portraits.

The cartilage, which raises the nose in the middle of the face, varies in eight different ways. It is equally straight, equally concave, or equally convex, which is the first sort. Or, secondly, unequally straight, concave, or convex. Or, thirdly, straight in the upper part, and concave in the under. Or, fourthly, straight again in the upper part, and convex in those below. Or, fifthly, it may be concave and straight beneath. Or, sixthly, concave above, and convex below. Or, seventhly, it may be

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Chap. XXIII.—The Method of retaining in the Memory the Likeness of a Man, so as to draw his Profile, after having seen him only once.

Chap. XXIII.—The Method of retaining in the Memory the Likeness of a Man, so as to draw his Profile, after having seen him only once.

You must observe and remember well the variations of the four principal features in the profile; the nose, mouth, chin, and forehead. And first of the nose, of which there are three different sorts [8] , straight, concave, and convex. Of the straight there are but four variations, short or long, high at the end, or low. Of the concave there are three sorts; some have the concavity above, some in the middle, and some at the end. The convex noses also vary three ways; some project in the upper par

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Chap. XXIV.—How to remember the Form of a Face.

Chap. XXIV.—How to remember the Form of a Face.

If you wish to retain with facility the general look of a face, you must first learn how to draw well several faces, mouths, eyes, noses, chins, throats, necks, and shoulders; in short, all those principal parts which distinguish one man from another. For instance, noses are often different sorts [9] . Straight, bunched, concave, some raised above, some below the middle, aquiline, flat, round, and sharp. These affect the profile. In the front view there are eleven different sorts. Even, thick in

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Chap. XXV.—That a Painter should take Pleasure in the Opinion of every body.

Chap. XXV.—That a Painter should take Pleasure in the Opinion of every body.

A painter ought not certainly to refuse listening to the opinion of any one; for we know that, although a man be not a painter, he may have just notions of the forms of men; whether a man has a hump on his back, a thick leg, or a large hand; whether he be lame, or have any other defect. Now, if we know that men are able to judge of the works of Nature, should we not think them more able to detect our errors?...

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ANATOMY.

ANATOMY.

The principal and most important consideration required in drawing figures, is to set the head well upon the shoulders, the chest upon the hips, the hips and shoulders upon the feet. Study the science first, and then follow the practice which results from that science. Pursue method in your study, and do not quit one part till it be perfectly engraven in the memory; and observe what difference there is between the members of animals and their joints [10] . It is an easy matter for a man who is w

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MOTION AND EQUIPOISE OF FIGURES.

MOTION AND EQUIPOISE OF FIGURES.

The non-existence of motion in any animal resting on its feet, is owing to the equality of weight distributed on each side of the line of gravity. Motion is created by the loss of due equipoise, that is, by inequality of weight; for nothing can move of itself, without losing its centre of gravity, and the farther that is removed, the quicker and stronger will be the motion. Page 27 . Chap. 62 . Plate 5 . London, Published by J. Taylor High Holborn. The balance or equipoise of parts in the human

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LINEAR PERSPECTIVE.

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE.

Those who become enamoured of the practice of the art, without having previously applied to the diligent study of the scientific part of it, may be compared to mariners, who put to sea in a ship without rudder or compass, and therefore cannot be certain of arriving at the wished-for port. Practice must always be founded on good theory; to this, Perspective is the guide and entrance, without which nothing can be well done. Perspective is to Painting what the bridle is to a horse, and the rudder t

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Chap. CXXVIII.—Precept for avoiding a bad Choice in the Style or Proportion of Figures.

Chap. CXXVIII.—Precept for avoiding a bad Choice in the Style or Proportion of Figures.

The painter ought to form his style upon the most proportionate model in Nature; and after having measured that, he ought to measure himself also, and be perfectly acquainted with his own defects or deficiencies; and having acquired this knowledge, his constant care should be to avoid conveying into his work those defects which he has found in his own person; for these defects, becoming habitual to his observation, mislead his judgment, and he perceives them no longer. We ought, therefore, to st

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Chap. CXXIX.—Variety in Figures.

Chap. CXXIX.—Variety in Figures.

A painter ought to aim at universal excellence; for he will be greatly wanting in dignity, if he do one thing well and another badly, as many do, who study only the naked figure, measured and proportioned by a pair of compasses in their hands, and do not seek for variety. A man may be well proportioned, and yet be tall or short, large or lean, or of a middle size; and whoever does not make great use of these varieties, which are all existing in Nature in its most perfect state, will produce figu

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Chap. CXXX.—How a Painter ought to proceed in his Studies.

Chap. CXXX.—How a Painter ought to proceed in his Studies.

The painter ought always to form in his mind a kind of system of reasoning or discussion within himself on any remarkable object before him. He should stop, take notes, and form some rule upon it; considering the place, the circumstances, the lights and shadows....

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Chap. CXXXI.—Of sketching Histories and Figures.

Chap. CXXXI.—Of sketching Histories and Figures.

Sketches of historical subjects must be slight, attending only to the situation of the figures, without regard to the finishing of particular members, which may be done afterwards at leisure, when the mind is so disposed....

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Chap. CXXXII.—How to study Composition.

Chap. CXXXII.—How to study Composition.

The young student should begin by sketching slightly some single figure, and turn that on all sides, knowing already how to contract, and how to extend the members; after which, he may put two together in various attitudes, we will suppose in the act of fighting boldly. This composition also he must try on all sides, and in a variety of ways, tending to the same expression. Then he may imagine one of them very courageous, while the other is a coward. Let these attitudes, and many other accidenta

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Chap. CXXXIII.—Of the Attitudes of Men.

Chap. CXXXIII.—Of the Attitudes of Men.

The attitudes and all the members are to be disposed in such a manner, that by them the intentions of the mind may be easily discovered....

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Chap. CXXXIV.—Variety of Positions.

Chap. CXXXIV.—Variety of Positions.

The positions of the human figure are to be adapted to the age and rank; and to be varied according to the difference of the sexes, men or women....

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Chap. CXXXV.—Of Studies from Nature for History.

Chap. CXXXV.—Of Studies from Nature for History.

It is necessary to consider well the situation for which the history is to be painted, particularly the height; and let the painter place accordingly the model, from which he means to make his studies for that historical picture; and set himself as much below the object, as the picture is to be above the eye of the spectator, otherwise the work will be faulty....

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Chap. CXXXVI.—Of the Variety of Figures in History Painting.

Chap. CXXXVI.—Of the Variety of Figures in History Painting.

History painting must exhibit variety in its fullest extent. In temper, size, complexion, actions, plumpness, leanness, thick, thin, large, small, rough, smooth, old age and youth, strong and muscular, weak, with little appearance of muscles, cheerfulness and melancholy. Some should be with curled hair, and some with straight; some short, some long, some quick in their motions, and some slow, with a variety of dresses and colours, according as the subject may require....

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Chap. CXXXVII.—Of Variety in History.

Chap. CXXXVII.—Of Variety in History.

A painter should delight in introducing great variety into his compositions, avoiding repetition, that by this fertility of invention he may attract and charm the eye of the beholder. If it be requisite according to the subject meant to be represented, that there should be a mixture of men differing in their faces, ages, and dress, grouped with women, children, dogs, and horses, buildings, hills and flat country; observe dignity and decorum in the principal figure; such as a king, magistrate, or

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Chap. CXXXVIII.—Of the Age of Figures.

Chap. CXXXVIII.—Of the Age of Figures.

Do not bring together a number of boys with as many old men, nor young men with infants, nor women with men; if the subject you mean to represent does not oblige you to it....

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Chap. CXXXIX.—Of Variety of Faces.

Chap. CXXXIX.—Of Variety of Faces.

The Italian painters have been accused of a common fault, that is, of introducing into their compositions the faces, and even the whole figures, of Roman emperors, which they take from the antique. To avoid such an error, let no repetition take place, either in parts, or the whole of a figure; nor let there be even the same face in another composition: and the more the figures are contrasted, viz. the deformed opposed to the beautiful, the old to the young, the strong to the feeble, the more the

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Chap. CXL.—A Fault in Painters.

Chap. CXL.—A Fault in Painters.

It is a very great fault in a painter to repeat the same motions in figures, and the same folds in draperies in the same composition, as also to make all the faces alike....

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Chap. CXLI.—How you may learn to compose Groups for History Painting.

Chap. CXLI.—How you may learn to compose Groups for History Painting.

When you are well instructed in perspective, and know perfectly how to draw the anatomy and forms of different bodies or objects, it should be your delight to observe and consider in your walks the different actions of men, when they are talking, or quarrelling; when they laugh, and when they fight. Attend to their positions, and to those of the spectators; whether they are attempting to separate those who fight, or merely lookers-on. Be quick in sketching these with slight strokes in your pocke

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Chap. CXLII.—How to study the Motions of the human Body.

Chap. CXLII.—How to study the Motions of the human Body.

The first requisite towards a perfect acquaintance with the various motions of the human body, is the knowledge of all the parts, particularly the joints, in all the attitudes in which it may be placed. Then make slight sketches in your pocket-book, as opportunities occur, of the actions of men, as they happen to meet your eye, without being perceived by them; because, if they were to observe you, they would be disturbed from that freedom of action, which is prompted by inward feeling; as when t

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Chap. CXLIII.—Of Dresses, and of Draperies and Folds.

Chap. CXLIII.—Of Dresses, and of Draperies and Folds.

The draperies with which you dress figures ought to have their folds so accommodated as to surround the parts they are intended to cover; that in the mass of light there be not any dark fold, and in the mass of shadows none receiving too great a light. They must go gently over, describing the parts; but not with lines across, cutting the members with hard notches, deeper than the part can possibly be; at the same time, it must fit the body, and not appear like an empty bundle of cloth; a fault o

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Chap. CXLIV.—Of the Nature of Folds in Draperies.

Chap. CXLIV.—Of the Nature of Folds in Draperies.

Many painters prefer making the folds of their draperies with acute angles, deep and precise; others with angles hardly perceptible; and some with none at all; but instead of them, certain curved lines....

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Chap. CXLV.—How the Folds of Draperies ought to be represented, Plate XVIII.

Chap. CXLV.—How the Folds of Draperies ought to be represented, Plate XVIII.

That part of the drapery, which is the farthest from the place where it is gathered, will appear more approaching its natural state. Every thing naturally inclines to preserve its primitive form. Therefore a stuff or cloth, which is of equal thickness on both sides, will always incline to remain flat. For that reason, when it is constrained by some fold to relinquish its flat situation, it is observed that, at the part of its greatest restraint, it is continually making efforts to return to its

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Chap. CXLVI.—How the Folds in Draperies ought to be made.

Chap. CXLVI.—How the Folds in Draperies ought to be made.

Draperies are not to be encumbered with many folds: on the contrary, there ought to be some only where they are held up with the hands or arms of the figures, and the rest left to fall with natural simplicity. They ought to be studied from Nature; that is to say, if a woollen cloth be intended, the folds ought to be drawn after such cloth; if it be of silk, or thin stuff, or else very thick for labourers, let it be distinguished by the nature of the folds. But never copy them, as some do, after

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Chap. CXLVII.—Fore-shortening of Folds, Plate XIX.

Chap. CXLVII.—Fore-shortening of Folds, Plate XIX.

Where the figure is fore-shortened, there ought to appear a greater number of folds, than on the other parts, all surrounding it in a circular manner. Let E be the situation of the eye. M N will have the middle of every circular fold successively removed farther from its outline, in proportion as it is more distant from the eye. In M O of the other figure the outlines of these circular folds will appear almost straight, because it is situated opposite the eye; but in P and Q quite the contrary,

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Chap. CXLVIII.—Of Folds.

Chap. CXLVIII.—Of Folds.

The folds of draperies, whatever be the motion of the figure, ought always to shew, by the form of their outlines, the attitude of such figure; so as to leave, in the mind of the beholder, no doubt or confusion in regard to the true position of the body; and let there be no fold, which, by its shadow, breaks through any of the members; that is to say, appearing to go in deeper than the surface of the part it covers. And if you represent the figure clothed with several garments, one over the othe

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Chap. CXLIX.—Of Decorum.

Chap. CXLIX.—Of Decorum.

Observe decorum in every thing you represent, that is, fitness of action, dress, and situation, according to the dignity or meanness of the subject to be represented. Be careful that a king, for instance, be grave and majestic in his countenance and dress; that the place be well decorated; and that his attendants, or the by-standers, express reverence and admiration, and appear as noble, in dresses suitable to a royal court. On the contrary, in the representation of a mean subject, let the figur

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Chap. CL.—The Character of Figures in Composition.

Chap. CL.—The Character of Figures in Composition.

In general, the painter ought to introduce very few old men, in the ordinary course of historical subjects, and those few separated from young people; because old people are few, and their habits do not agree with those of youth. Where there is no conformity of custom, there can be no intimacy, and, without it, a company is soon separated. But if the subject require an appearance of gravity, a meeting on important business, as a council, for instance, let there be few young men introduced, for y

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Chap. CLI.—The Motion of the Muscles, when the Figures are in natural Positions.

Chap. CLI.—The Motion of the Muscles, when the Figures are in natural Positions.

A figure , which does not express by its position the sentiments and passions, by which we suppose it animated, will appear to indicate that its muscles are not obedient to its will, and the painter very deficient in judgment. For that reason, a figure is to shew great eagerness and meaning; and its position is to be so well appropriated to that meaning, that it cannot be mistaken, nor made use of for any other....

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Chap. CLII.—A Precept in Painting.

Chap. CLII.—A Precept in Painting.

The painter ought to notice those quick motions, which men are apt to make without thinking, when impelled by strong and powerful affections of the mind. He ought to take memorandums of them, and sketch them in his pocket-book, in order to make use of them when they may answer his purpose; and then to put a living model in the same position, to see the quality and aspect of the muscles which are in action....

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Chap. CLIII.—Of the Motion of Man, Plates XX. and XXI.

Chap. CLIII.—Of the Motion of Man, Plates XX. and XXI.

The first and principal part of the art is composition of any sort, or putting things together. The second relates to the expression and motion of the figures, and requires that they be well appropriated, and seeming attentive to what they are about; appearing to move with alacrity and spirit, according to the degree of expression suitable to the occasion; expressing slow and tardy motions, as well as those of eagerness in pursuit: and that quickness and ferocity be expressed with such force as

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Chap. CLIV.—Of Attitudes, and the Motions of the Members.

Chap. CLIV.—Of Attitudes, and the Motions of the Members.

The same attitude is not to be repeated in the same picture, nor the same motion of members in the same figure, nay, not even in the hands or fingers. And if the history requires a great number of figures, such as a battle, or a massacre of soldiers, in which there are but three ways of striking, viz. thrusting, cutting, or back-handed; in that case you must take care, that all those who are cutting be expressed in different views; some turning their backs, some their sides, and others be seen i

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Chap. CLV.—Of a single Figure separate from an historical Group.

Chap. CLV.—Of a single Figure separate from an historical Group.

The same motion of members should not be repeated in a figure which you mean to be alone; for instance, if the figure be represented running, it must not throw both hands forward; but one forward and the other backward, or else it cannot run. If the right foot come forward, the right arm must go backward and the left forward, because, without such disposition and contraste of parts, it is impossible to run well. If another figure be supposed to follow this, one of its legs should be brought some

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Chap. CLVI.—On the Attitudes of the human Figure.

Chap. CLVI.—On the Attitudes of the human Figure.

A painter is to be attentive to the motions and actions of men, occasioned by some sudden accident. He must observe them on the spot, take sketches, and not wait till he wants such expression, and then have it counterfeited for him; for instance, setting a model to weep when there is no cause; such an expression without a cause will be neither quick nor natural. But it will be of great use to have observed every action from nature, as it occurs, and then to have a model set in the same attitude

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Chap. CLVII.—How to represent a Storm.

Chap. CLVII.—How to represent a Storm.

To form a just idea of a storm, you must consider it attentively in its effects. When the wind blows violently over the sea or land, it removes and carries off with it every thing that is not firmly fixed to the general mass. The clouds must appear straggling and broken, carried according to the direction and the force of the wind, and blended with clouds of dust raised from the sandy shore. Branches and leaves of trees must be represented as carried along by the violence of the storm, and, toge

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Chap. CLVIII.—How to compose a Battle.

Chap. CLVIII.—How to compose a Battle.

First , let the air exhibit a confused mixture of smoke, arising from the discharge of artillery and musquetry, and the dust raised by the horses of the combatants; and observe, that dust being of an earthy nature, is heavy; but yet, by reason of its minute particles, it is easily impelled upwards, and mixes with the air; nevertheless, it naturally falls downwards again, the most subtle parts of it alone gaining any considerable degree of elevation, and at its utmost height it is so thin and tra

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Chap. CLIX.—The Representation of an Orator and his Audience.

Chap. CLIX.—The Representation of an Orator and his Audience.

If you have to represent a man who is speaking to a large assembly of people, you are to consider the subject matter of his discourse, and to adapt his attitude to such subject. If he means to persuade, let it be known by his gesture. If he is giving an explanation, deduced from several reasons, let him put two fingers of the right hand within one of the left, having the other two bent close, his face turned towards the audience, with the mouth half open, seeming to speak. If he is sitting, let

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Chap. CLX.—Of demonstrative Gestures.

Chap. CLX.—Of demonstrative Gestures.

The action by which a figure points at any thing near, either in regard to time or situation, is to be expressed by the hand very little removed from the body. But if the same thing is far distant, the hand must also be far removed from the body, and the face of the figure pointing, must be turned towards those to whom he is pointing it out....

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Chap. CLXI.—Of the Attitudes of the By-standers at some remarkable Event.

Chap. CLXI.—Of the Attitudes of the By-standers at some remarkable Event.

All those who are present at some event deserving notice, express their admiration, but in various manners. As when the hand of justice punishes some malefactor. If the subject be an act of devotion, the eyes of all present should be directed towards the object of their adoration, aided by a variety of pious actions with the other members; as at the elevation of the host at mass, and other similar ceremonies. If it be a laughable subject, or one exciting compassion and moving to tears, in those

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Chap. CLXII.—How to represent Night.

Chap. CLXII.—How to represent Night.

Those objects which are entirely deprived of light, are lost to the sight, as in the night; therefore if you mean to paint a history under those circumstances, you must suppose a large fire, and those objects that are near it to be tinged with its colour, and the nearer they are the more they will partake of it. The fire being red, all those objects which receive light from it will appear of a reddish colour, and those that are most distant from it will partake of the darkness that surrounds the

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Chap. CLXIII.—The Method of awakening the Mind to a Variety of Inventions.

Chap. CLXIII.—The Method of awakening the Mind to a Variety of Inventions.

I will not omit to introduce among these precepts a new kind of speculative invention, which though apparently trifling, and almost laughable, is nevertheless of great utility in assisting the genius to find variety for composition. By looking attentively at old and smeared walls, or stones and veined marble of various colours, you may fancy that you see in them several compositions, landscapes, battles, figures in quick motion, strange countenances, and dresses, with an infinity of other object

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Chap. CLXIV.—Of Composition in History.

Chap. CLXIV.—Of Composition in History.

When the painter has only a single figure to represent, he must avoid any shortening whatever, as well of any particular member, as of the whole figure, because he would have to contend with the prejudices of those who have no knowledge in that branch of the art. But in subjects of history, composed of many figures, shortenings may be introduced with great propriety, nay, they are indispensable, and ought to be used without reserve, as the subject may require; particularly in battles, where of c

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EXPRESSION and CHARACTER.

EXPRESSION and CHARACTER.

Let your figures have actions appropriated to what they are intended to think or say, and these will be well learnt by imitating the deaf, who by the motion of their hands, eyes, eyebrows, and the whole body, endeavour to express the sentiments of their mind. Do not ridicule the thought of a master without a tongue teaching you an art he does not understand; he will do it better by his expressive motions, than all the rest by their words and examples. Let then the painter, of whatever school, at

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Chap. CLXXV.—The Course of Study to be pursued.

Chap. CLXXV.—The Course of Study to be pursued.

The student who is desirous of making great proficiency in the art of imitating the works of Nature, should not only learn the shape of figures or other objects, and be able to delineate them with truth and precision, but he must also accompany them with their proper lights and shadows, according to the situation in which those objects appear....

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Chap. CLXXVI.—Which of the two is the most useful Knowledge, the Outlines of Figures, or that of Light and Shadow.

Chap. CLXXVI.—Which of the two is the most useful Knowledge, the Outlines of Figures, or that of Light and Shadow.

The knowledge of the outline is of most consequence, and yet may be acquired to great certainty by dint of study; as the outlines of the different parts of the human figure, particularly those which do not bend, are invariably the same. But the knowledge of the situation, quality, and quantity of shadows, being infinite, requires the most extensive study....

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Chap. CLXXVII.—Which is the most important, the Shadows or Outlines in Painting.

Chap. CLXXVII.—Which is the most important, the Shadows or Outlines in Painting.

It requires much more observation and study to arrive at perfection in the shadowing of a picture, than in merely drawing the lines of it. The proof of this is, that the lines may be traced upon a veil or a flat glass placed between the eye and the object to be imitated. But that cannot be of any use in shadowing, on account of the infinite gradation of shades, and the blending of them, which does not allow of any precise termination; and most frequently they are confused, as will be demonstrate

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Chap. CLXXVIII.—What is a Painter’s first Aim, and Object.

Chap. CLXXVIII.—What is a Painter’s first Aim, and Object.

The first object of a painter is to make a simple flat surface appear like a relievo, and some of its parts detached from the ground; he who excels all others in that part of the art, deserves the greatest praise. This perfection of the art depends on the correct distribution of lights and shades, called Chiaro-scuro . If the painter then avoids shadows, he may be said to avoid the glory of the art, and to render his work despicable to real connoisseurs, for the sake of acquiring the esteem of v

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Chap. CLXXIX.—The Difference of Superficies, in regard to Painting.

Chap. CLXXIX.—The Difference of Superficies, in regard to Painting.

Solid bodies are of two sorts: the one has the surface curvilinear, oval, or spherical; the other has several surfaces, or sides producing angles, either regular or irregular. Spherical, or oval bodies, will always appear detached from their ground, though they are exactly of the same colour. Bodies also of different sides and angles will always detach, because they are always disposed so as to produce shades on some of their sides, which cannot happen to a plain superficies [36] ....

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Chap. CLXXX.—How a Painter may become universal.

Chap. CLXXX.—How a Painter may become universal.

The painter who wishes to be universal, and please a variety of judges, must unite in the same composition, objects susceptible of great force in the shadows, and great sweetness in the management of them; accounting, however, in every instance, for such boldness and softenings....

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Chap. CLXXXI.—Accuracy ought to be learnt before Dispatch in the Execution.

Chap. CLXXXI.—Accuracy ought to be learnt before Dispatch in the Execution.

If you wish to make good and useful studies, use great deliberation in your drawings, observe well among the lights which, and how many, hold the first rank in point of brightness; and so among the shadows, which are darker than others, and in what manner they blend together; compare the quality and quantity of one with the other, and observe to what part they are directed. Be careful also in your outlines, or divisions of the members. Remark well what quantity of parts are to be on one side, an

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Chap. CLXXXII.—How the Painter is to place himself in regard to the Light, and his Model.

Chap. CLXXXII.—How the Painter is to place himself in regard to the Light, and his Model.

Let A B be the window, M the centre of it, C the model. The best situation for the painter will be a little sideways, between the window and his model, as D, so that he may see his object partly in the light and partly in the shadow....

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Chap. CLXXXIII.—Of the best Light.

Chap. CLXXXIII.—Of the best Light.

The light from on high, and not too powerful, will be found the best calculated to shew the parts to advantage....

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Chap. CLXXXIV.—Of Drawing by Candle-light.

Chap. CLXXXIV.—Of Drawing by Candle-light.

To this artificial light apply a paper blind, and you will see the shadows undetermined and soft....

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Chap. CLXXXV.—Of those Painters who draw at Home from one Light, and afterwards adapt their Studies to another Situation in the Country, and a different Light.

Chap. CLXXXV.—Of those Painters who draw at Home from one Light, and afterwards adapt their Studies to another Situation in the Country, and a different Light.

It is a great error in some painters who draw a figure from Nature at home, by any particular light, and afterwards make use of that drawing in a picture representing an open country, which receives the general light of the sky, where the surrounding air gives light on all sides. This painter would put dark shadows, where Nature would either produce none, or, if any, so very faint as to be almost imperceptible; and he would throw reflected lights where it is impossible there should be any....

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Chap. CLXXXVI.—How high the Light should be in drawing from Nature.

Chap. CLXXXVI.—How high the Light should be in drawing from Nature.

To paint well from Nature, your window should be to the North, that the lights may not vary. If it be to the South, you must have paper blinds, that the sun, in going round, may not alter the shadows. The situation of the light should be such as to produce upon the ground a shadow from your model as long as that is high....

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Chap. CLXXXVII.—What Light the Painter must make use of to give most Relief to his Figures.

Chap. CLXXXVII.—What Light the Painter must make use of to give most Relief to his Figures.

The figures which receive a particular light shew more relief than those which receive an universal one; because the particular light occasions some reflexes, which proceed from the light of one object upon the shadows of another, and helps to detach it from the dark ground. But a figure placed in front of a dark and large space, and receiving a particular light, can receive no reflexion from any other objects, and nothing is seen of the figure but what the light strikes on, the rest being blend

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Chap. CLXXXVIII.—Advice to Painters.

Chap. CLXXXVIII.—Advice to Painters.

Be very careful, in painting, to observe, that between the shadows there are other shadows, almost imperceptible, both for darkness and shape; and this is proved by the third proposition [38] , which says, that the surfaces of globular or convex bodies have as great a variety of lights and shadows as the bodies that surround them have....

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Chap. CLXXXIX.—Of Shadows.

Chap. CLXXXIX.—Of Shadows.

Those shadows which in Nature are undetermined, and the extremities of which can hardly be perceived, are to be copied in your painting in the same manner, never to be precisely finished, but left confused and blended. This apparent neglect will shew great judgment, and be the ingenious result of your observation of Nature....

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Chap. CXC.—Of the Kind of Light proper for drawing from Relievos, or from Nature.

Chap. CXC.—Of the Kind of Light proper for drawing from Relievos, or from Nature.

Lights separated from the shadows with too much precision, have a very bad effect. In order, therefore, to avoid this inconvenience, if the object be in the open country, you need not let your figures be illumined by the sun; but may suppose some transparent clouds interposed, so that the sun not being visible, the termination of the shadows will be also imperceptible and soft....

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Chap. CXCI.—Whether the Light should be admitted in Front or sideways; and which is most pleasing and graceful.

Chap. CXCI.—Whether the Light should be admitted in Front or sideways; and which is most pleasing and graceful.

The light admitted in front of heads situated opposite to side walls that are dark, will cause them to have great relievo, particularly if the light be placed high; and the reason is, that the most prominent parts of those faces are illumined by the general light striking them in front, which light produces very faint shadows on the part where it strikes; but as it turns towards the sides, it begins to participate of the dark shadows of the room, which grow darker in proportion as it sinks into

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Chap. CXCII.—Of the Difference of Lights according to the Situation.

Chap. CXCII.—Of the Difference of Lights according to the Situation.

A small light will cast large and determined shadows upon the surrounding bodies. A large light, on the contrary, will cast small shadows on them, and they will be much confused in their termination. When a small but strong light is surrounded by a broad but weaker light, the latter will appear like a demi-tint to the other, as the sky round the sun. And the bodies which receive the light from the one, will serve as demi-tints to those which receive the light from the other....

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Chap. CXCIII.—How to distribute the Light on Figures.

Chap. CXCIII.—How to distribute the Light on Figures.

The lights are to be distributed according to the natural situation you mean your figures should occupy. If you suppose them in sunshine, the shades must be dark, the lights broad and extended, and the shadows of all the surrounding objects distinctly marked upon the ground. If seen in a gloomy day, there will be very little difference between the lights and shades, and no shadows at the feet. If the figures be represented within doors, the lights and shadows will again be distinctly divided, an

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Chap. CXCIV.—Of the Beauty of Faces.

Chap. CXCIV.—Of the Beauty of Faces.

You must not mark any muscles with hardness of line, but let the soft light glide upon them, and terminate imperceptibly in delightful shadows: from this will arise grace and beauty to the face....

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Chap. CXCV.—How, in drawing a Face, to give it Grace, by the Management of Light and Shade.

Chap. CXCV.—How, in drawing a Face, to give it Grace, by the Management of Light and Shade.

A face placed in the dark part of a room, acquires great additional grace by means of light and shadow. The shadowed part of the face blends with the darkness of the ground, and the light part receives an increase of brightness from the open air, the shadows on this side becoming almost insensible; and from this augmentation of light and shadow, the face has much relief, and acquires great beauty....

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Chap. CXCVI.—How to give Grace and Relief to Faces.

Chap. CXCVI.—How to give Grace and Relief to Faces.

In streets running towards the west, when the sun is in the meridian, and the walls on each side so high that they cast no reflexions on that side of the bodies which is in shade, and the sky is not too bright, we find the most advantageous situation for giving relief and grace to figures, particularly to faces; because both sides of the face will participate of the shadows of the walls. The sides of the nose and the face towards the west, will be light, and the man whom we suppose placed at the

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Chap. CXCVII.—Of the Termination of Bodies upon each other.

Chap. CXCVII.—Of the Termination of Bodies upon each other.

When a body, of a cylindrical or convex surface, terminates upon another body of the same colour, it will appear darker on the edge, than the body upon which it terminates. And any flat body, adjacent to a white surface, will appear very dark; but upon a dark ground it will appear lighter than any other part, though the lights be equal....

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Chap. CXCVIII.—Of the Back-grounds of painted Objects.

Chap. CXCVIII.—Of the Back-grounds of painted Objects.

The ground which surrounds the figures in any painting, ought to be darker than the light part of those figures, and lighter than the shadowed part....

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Chap. CXCIX.—How to detach and bring forward Figures out of their Back-ground.

Chap. CXCIX.—How to detach and bring forward Figures out of their Back-ground.

If your figure be dark, place it on a light ground; if it be light, upon a dark ground; and if it be partly light and partly dark, as is generally the case, contrive that the dark part of the figure be upon the light part of the ground, and the light side of it against the dark [39] ....

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Chap. CC.—Of proper Back-grounds.

Chap. CC.—Of proper Back-grounds.

It is of the greatest importance to consider well the nature of back-grounds, upon which any opake body is to be placed. In order to detach it properly, you should place the light part of such opake body against the dark part of the back-ground, and the dark parts on a light ground [40] ; as in the cut [41] ....

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Chap. CCI.—Of the general Light diffused over Figures.

Chap. CCI.—Of the general Light diffused over Figures.

In compositions of many figures and animals, observe, that the parts of these different objects ought to be darker in proportion as they are lower, and as they are nearer the middle of the groups, though they are all of an uniform colour. This is necessary, because a smaller portion of the sky (from which all bodies are illuminated) can give light to the lower spaces between these different figures, than to the upper parts of the spaces. It is proved thus: A B C D is that portion of the sky whic

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Chap. CCII.—Of those Parts in Shadows which appear the darkest at a Distance.

Chap. CCII.—Of those Parts in Shadows which appear the darkest at a Distance.

The neck, or any other part which is raised straight upwards, and has a projection over it, will be darker than the perpendicular front of that projection; and this projecting part will be lighter, in proportion as it presents a larger surface to the light. For instance, the recess A receives no light from any part of the sky G K, but B begins to receive the light from the part of the sky H K, and C from G K; and the point D receives the whole of F K. Therefore the chest will be as light as the

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Chap. CCIII.—Of the Eye viewing the Folds of Draperies surrounding a Figure.

Chap. CCIII.—Of the Eye viewing the Folds of Draperies surrounding a Figure.

The shadows between the folds of a drapery surrounding the parts of the human body will be darker as the deep hollows where the shadows are generated are more directly opposite the eye. This is to be observed only when the eye is placed between the light and the shady part of the figure....

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Chap. CCIV.—Of the Relief of Figures remote from the Eye.

Chap. CCIV.—Of the Relief of Figures remote from the Eye.

Any opake body appears less relieved in proportion as it is farther distant from the eye; because the air, interposed between the eye and such body, being lighter than the shadow of it, it tarnishes and weakens that shadow, lessens its power, and consequently lessens also its relief....

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Chap. CCV.—Of Outlines of Objects on the Side towards the Light.

Chap. CCV.—Of Outlines of Objects on the Side towards the Light.

The extremities of any object on the side which receives the light, will appear darker if upon a lighter ground, and lighter if seen upon a darker ground. But if such body be flat, and seen upon a ground equal in point of light with itself, and of the same colour, such boundaries, or outlines, will be entirely lost to the sight [42] ....

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Chap. CCVI.—How to make Objects detach from their Ground, that is to say, from the Surface on which they are painted.

Chap. CCVI.—How to make Objects detach from their Ground, that is to say, from the Surface on which they are painted.

Objects contrasted with a light ground will appear much more detached than those which are placed against a dark one. The reason is, that if you wish to give relief to your figures, you will make those parts which are the farthest from the light, participate the least of it; therefore they will remain the darkest, and every distinction of outline would be lost in the general mass of shadows. But to give it grace, roundness, and effect, those dark shades are always attended by reflexes, or else t

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CONTRASTE AND EFFECT.

CONTRASTE AND EFFECT.

Figures will have more grace, placed in the open and general light, than in any particular or small one; because the powerful and extended light will surround and embrace the objects: and works done in that kind of light appear pleasant and graceful when placed at a distance [43] , while those which are drawn in a narrow light, will receive great force of shadow, but will never appear at a great distance, but as painted objects. The greater the transparent interposition is between the eye and th

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REFLEXES.

REFLEXES.

When a darkish body terminates upon a light ground, it will appear detached from that ground; because all opake bodies of a curved surface are not only dark on that side which receives no light, and consequently very different from the ground; but even that side of the curved surface which is enlightened, will not carry its principal light to the extremities, but have between the ground and the principal light a certain demi-tint, darker than either the ground or that light. Any thing white will

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COLOURS.

COLOURS.

White is more capable of receiving all sorts of colours, than the surface of any body whatever, that is not transparent. To prove it, we shall say, that any void space is capable of receiving what another space, not void, cannot receive. In the same manner, a white surface, like a void space, being destitute of any colour, will be fittest to receive such as are conveyed to it from any other enlightened body, and will participate more of the colour than black can do; which latter, like a broken v

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COLOURS IN REGARD TO LIGHT AND SHADOW.

COLOURS IN REGARD TO LIGHT AND SHADOW.

Your window must be open to the sky, and the walls painted of a reddish colour. The summertime is the best, when the clouds conceal the sun, or else your walls on the south side of the room must be so high, as that the sun-beams cannot strike on the opposite side, in order that the reflexion of those beams may not destroy the shadows. The window which gives light to a painting-room, ought to be made of oiled paper, without any cross bar, or projecting edge at the opening, or any sharp angle in t

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COLOURS IN REGARD TO BACK-GROUNDS.

COLOURS IN REGARD TO BACK-GROUNDS.

Do not make the boundaries of your figures with any other colour than that of the back-ground, on which they are placed; that is, avoid making dark outlines. The extremities of objects which are at some distance, are not seen so distinctly as if they were nearer. Therefore the painter ought to regulate the strength of his outlines, or extremities, according to the distance. The boundaries which separate one body from another, are of the nature of mathematical lines, but not of real lines. The en

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CONTRASTE, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES, IN REGARD TO COLOURS.

CONTRASTE, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES, IN REGARD TO COLOURS.

What is fine is not always beautiful and good: I address this to such painters as are so attached to the beauty of colours, that they regret being obliged to give them almost imperceptible shadows, not considering the beautiful relief which figures acquire by a proper gradation and strength of shadows. Such persons may be compared to those speakers who in conversation make use of many fine words without meaning, which altogether scarcely form one good sentence. If you mean that the proximity of

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PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS.

PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS.

When , on account of some particular quality of the air, you can no longer distinguish the difference between the lights and shadows of objects, you may reject the perspective of shadows, and make use only of the linear perspective, and the diminution of colours, to lessen the knowledge of the objects opposed to the eye; and this, that is to say, the loss of the knowledge of the figure of each object, will make the same object appear more remote. The eye can never arrive at a perfect knowledge o

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AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.

AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.

There is another kind of perspective called aerial, because by the difference of the air it is easy to determine the distance of different objects, though seen on the same line; such, for instance, as buildings behind a wall, and appearing all of the same height above it. If in your picture you want to have one appear more distant than another, you must first suppose the air somewhat thick, because, as we have said before, in such a kind of air the objects seen at a great distance, as mountains

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LANDSCAPE.

LANDSCAPE.

Any dark object will appear lighter when removed to some distance from the eye. It follows, by the contrary reason, that a dark object will appear still darker when brought nearer to the eye. Therefore the inferior parts of any object whatever, placed in thick air, will appear farther from the eye at the bottom than at the top; for that reason the lower parts of a mountain appear farther off than its top, which is in reality the farthest. The eye which, looking downwards, sees a town immersed in

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MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.

If a house be painted on the pannel B C, at the apparent distance of one mile, and by the side of it a real one be perceived at the true distance of one mile also; which objects are so disposed, that the pannel, or picture, A C, intersects the pyramidical rays with the same opening of angles; yet these two objects will never appear of the same size, nor at the same distance, if seen with both eyes [91] . In this, as in any other case, the painter is not to mind what kind of surface he has to wor

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