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The Close of the Middle Ages
The Close of the Middle Ages
PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY General Editor—ARTHUR HASSALL, M.A., Student of Christ Church, Oxford. The object of this series is to present in separate Volumes a comprehensive and trustworthy account of the general development of European History, and to deal fully and carefully with the more prominent events in each century. The Volumes embody the results of the latest investigations, and contain references to and notes upon original and other sources of information. No such attempt to place the
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PREFACE
PREFACE
The period treated in this volume is one of unique interest and significance in the history of Europe. Within these two centuries the political and social conditions of the so-called Middle Ages came to an end, and the states system of Modern Europe took its rise. But the importance of the period is more than equalled by the almost superhuman difficulty of narrating its events in anything like orderly and intelligible sequence. Such unity as had been given to Western Europe by the mediæval Empir
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LIST OF MAPS
LIST OF MAPS
At end of Book 1. France, to show the Additionst to the Monarchy between 1273 and 1494. 2. Possessions and Claims of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477. 3. Italy in the Fifteenth Century. 4. The Swiss Confederation....
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
[The following list has no pretensions to be an exhaustive bibliography of the period, nor does it profess to include all the authorities consulted by the author. It is merely compiled with the object of offering suggestions to any student who wishes to read more widely, either on the whole period, or on any part of it. Those books which cannot be classed under any of the great European states are placed under the head of ‘General.’] General — Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale du IV e . Sièc
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
[This table has been drawn up in order to bring together in their chronological sequence those events in different parts of Europe which are necessarily treated in the text under the head of different states. The chief events in English History are inserted to serve as guide-posts, even though in some cases no direct reference may be made to them in the following pages.]...
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CHAPTER I GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE AFTER THE INTERREGNUM, 1273-1313
CHAPTER I GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE AFTER THE INTERREGNUM, 1273-1313
The Empire—German divisions—The Interregnum—Rudolf of Hapsburg—His War with Ottokar—Adolf of Nassau—His relations with France—His fall—Albert I. —The Succession in Hungary and Bohemia—The Election of Henry VII. —His Italian Expedition—His Concessions to the Princes—His son John and the Bohemian Crown—The French seizure of Lyons—The importance of the Period 1273-1313 in German History Ever since A.D. 962 the German monarchy had been combined | The Empire and the German monarchy. | with the Roman
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CHAPTER II ITALY AND THE PAPACY, 1273-1313
CHAPTER II ITALY AND THE PAPACY, 1273-1313
Italy in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries—Causes of Italian disunion—The Guelfs and Ghibellines—The Italian towns—The House of Anjou in Naples—The Sicilian Vespers—The Popes and their States—Celestine V. is succeeded by Boniface VIII. —The last of the Mediæval Popes—The difficulties of Benedict XI. and Clement V. —The retirement of Clement V. to Avignon and beginning of the ‘Babylonish Captivity’—The condition of Tuscany—The Florentine Constitution—Genoa and Milan—The Venetian Constitution
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CHAPTER III FRANCE UNDER THE LATER CAPETS, 1270-1328
CHAPTER III FRANCE UNDER THE LATER CAPETS, 1270-1328
Progress of the French Monarchy—Its difficulties—Philip III. —The inheritance to Toulouse, Champagne, and Navarre—Wars with Castile and Aragon—Accession of Philip IV. and the importance of his reign—His War with England and Flanders—His relations with the Papacy—The suppression of the Templars—His policy of annexation—His domestic government—The King’s Court and its departments: the conseil du roi , the chambre des comptes , and the Parlement of Paris—The States-General—Financial maladministrati
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CHAPTER IV FRANCE UNDER THE EARLY VALOIS, 1328-1380
CHAPTER IV FRANCE UNDER THE EARLY VALOIS, 1328-1380
The accession of Philip of Valois—His relations with Navarre and England—Robert of Artois—Philip’s action in Gascony, Scotland, and Flanders brings on War with England—Edward III. and Jacob van Artevelde—Edward III. claims the French Crown—Beginning of the Hundred Years’ War—English Expedition into Picardy—The succession in Brittany followed by a war—The Murder of Artevelde—The battle of Crecy and siege of Calais—Annexation of Dauphiné to France—Accession of King John and renewal of the war with
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CHAPTER V LEWIS THE BAVARIAN AND THE AVIGNON POPES, 1314-1347
CHAPTER V LEWIS THE BAVARIAN AND THE AVIGNON POPES, 1314-1347
Disputed election to the Empire—Quarrel between Lewis IV. and John XXII. —The Franciscans and the Pope—The Heresy of the Beatific Vision—National feeling in Germany—Causes of the failure of Lewis as Emperor—The Expedition of the Emperor to Italy—Lewis supports the Anti-Pope—His retirement from Italy—His position in 1338—The Succession question in the Tyrol—Election of Charles IV. —Death of Lewis. The death of the Emperor Henry VII. (1313) gave occasion for one of those disputed elections which w
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CHAPTER VI CHARLES IV. AND THE GOLDEN BULL
CHAPTER VI CHARLES IV. AND THE GOLDEN BULL
Charles IV. secures the German Crown—His rule in Bohemia—His coronation in Italy—Difficulties in Germany—The Golden Bull—The Papacy and the Golden Bull—The results of the Golden Bull—The intentions of Charles IV. —The Territorial Policy of Charles IV. —The Succession question in Upper Bavaria—The election and coronation of Wenzel—The Swabian League—The Great Schism—Death of Charles IV. —Partition of the Luxemburg territories. When Charles IV. returned from the campaign in France, which had cost
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CHAPTER VII RISE OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION
CHAPTER VII RISE OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION
The origin of Swiss independence—The Hapsburgs in Swabia—The Forest Cantons—The League of 1291—Its Character—The Battle of Morgarten—Luzern joins the League—Zürich under Brun joins the League—Accession of Glarus—The League conquers Zug—Bern joins the League—The Eight Cantons—Continued danger from Austria—Rudolf IV. in Swabia—Leopold II. , his brother, renews the war with the Swiss—Battle of Sempach—Treaty of 1389. The Swiss Confederation has played a part in European | Interest of Swiss history.
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CHAPTER VIII ITALY IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 1313-1402
CHAPTER VIII ITALY IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 1313-1402
Guelfs and Ghibellines—Equality of parties leads to foreign intervention—Lewis the Bavarian—John of Bohemia—League against Mastino della Scala—Walter de Brienne in Florence—Rise of mercenaries—Foreign and native Condottieri—Joanna I. of Naples—Succession disputes in Naples—Rome and the Papal States—Career of Rienzi—Cardinal Albornoz recovers the Papal States—Return of the Popes to Rome and outbreak of the Great Schism—Strife of classes and families in Florence—Rising of the Ciompi —Revolution of
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CHAPTER IX THE SCHISMS IN THE PAPACY AND EMPIRE, 1378-1414
CHAPTER IX THE SCHISMS IN THE PAPACY AND EMPIRE, 1378-1414
Decline of German Monarchy—Dangers to Germany—Policy of Charles IV. —Return of the Papacy to Rome and election of Urban VI. —Election of Clement VII. and beginning of the Schism—The German towns and their hostility to the nobles—Weakness of Wenzel—The town-war—Peace of Eger—The Succession to Hungary and Poland—The Jagellon House is established in Poland, and Sigismund in Hungary—Opposition to Wenzel in Germany—Troubles in Bohemia—France and the Schism—Meeting of Wenzel and Charles VI. —A Schism
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CHAPTER X THE HUSSITE MOVEMENT AND THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE, 1409-1418
CHAPTER X THE HUSSITE MOVEMENT AND THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE, 1409-1418
Questions before the Council of Constance—The Hussite Movement—Its Political Aspect—Exodus of Germans from Prague—Hus at the Council of Constance—Parties at Constance—Hus imprisoned—Attacks on John XXIII. —His flight—Triumph of Sigismund—Deposition of John XXIII. —The Council during Sigismund’s absence—Sigismund’s journey—Dissensions in the Council—Election of Martin V. —Dissolution of the Council. The Council of Constance, like that of Pisa, had two very | Questions before the Council of Consta
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CHAPTER XI THE HUSSITE WARS AND THE COUNCIL OF BASEL, 1419-1449
CHAPTER XI THE HUSSITE WARS AND THE COUNCIL OF BASEL, 1419-1449
Sigismund and Germany—Hussite parties in Bohemia—Crusades against the Hussites—Bohemian victories—Bohemia and Poland—Attempted reforms in Germany—The Crusade of 1427—Reforms of 1427—The Crusade of 1431—Summons of the Council of Basel—Its procedure—Its quarrel with Eugenius IV. —His submission—The Compacts with Bohemia—Civil war in Bohemia—Battle of Lipan—Sigismund acknowledged king of Bohemia—The Council of Basel and reforms—Divisions within the Council—Negotiations with the Greeks—Quarrel of th
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CHAPTER XII MILAN AND VENICE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, 1402-1494
CHAPTER XII MILAN AND VENICE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, 1402-1494
Disruption of the duchy of Milan after the death of Gian Galeazzo Visconti—Venice acquires Eastern Lombardy as far as the Adige—Wars between Venice and Sigismund—Filippo Maria Visconti restores the duchy of Milan—Wars between Venice and Milan—Venetian frontier extended to the Adda—Death of Filippo Maria—Venice and Francesco Sforza—Peace of Lodi—Deposition and death of Francesco Foscari—Venice and the Turks—Treaty of Constantinople—War with Ferrara—Acquisition of Cyprus—Decline of Venice—Francesc
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CHAPTER XIII NAPLES AND THE PAPAL STATES IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
CHAPTER XIII NAPLES AND THE PAPAL STATES IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
The Papal States during the Schism and Ladislas of Naples—Martin V. returns to Rome—Succession question in Naples—Troubles of Eugenius IV. —War in Naples between Réné of Anjou and Alfonso of Aragon—Victory of Alfonso V. —Last years of Eugenius IV. —Nicolas V. —Calixtus III. —Death of Alfonso V. of Naples—Pius II. —Congress of Mantua—War in Naples between Ferrante and John of Calabria—Death of Pius II. at Ancona—Paul II. —Sixtus IV. and his nephews—War with Florence—Relations with Ferrara and Ven
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CHAPTER XIV FLORENCE UNDER THE MEDICI
CHAPTER XIV FLORENCE UNDER THE MEDICI
The period of oligarchical rule in Florence—Maso and Rinaldo degli Albizzi—Niccolo da Uzzano—The opposition and Giovanni de’ Medici—War with Filippo Maria Visconti—The Catasto —Unsuccessful attack upon Lucca—Expulsion of the Medici—Fall of the Albizzi, and return of Cosimo de’ Medici—Character and methods of Cosimo’s rule—Luca Pitti and the coup d’état of 1458—Cosimo’s foreign policy—Piero de’ Medici and his opponents—Victory of Piero—Accession of Lorenzo de’ Medici—Approximation to monarchy—Ali
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CHAPTER XV BURGUNDIANS AND ARMAGNACS IN FRANCE, 1380-1435
CHAPTER XV BURGUNDIANS AND ARMAGNACS IN FRANCE, 1380-1435
Minority of Charles VI. —The princes of the lilies—Risings in Paris—Intervention in Flanders—Battle of Roosebek and death of Philip van Artevelde—Rule of the Marmousets —Insanity of Charles VI. —Rivalry for the government—Philip the Bold of Burgundy—Louis of Orleans—John the Fearless—Murder of Orleans—Outbreak of civil war—The Cabochiens in Paris—Victory of the Armagnacs in 1413—Henry V. invades France—Battle of Agincourt—Armagnacs retain their ascendency in France—English successes in Normandy—
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CHAPTER XVI REVIVAL OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY, 1435-1494
CHAPTER XVI REVIVAL OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY, 1435-1494
English disasters and loss of Paris—Prolongation of war—France exhausted and demoralised—Necessity of reform—Ordinance of 1439—The Praguerie —Creation of a standing army—Peace party in England—-Henry VI. marries Margaret of Anjou—Renewal of war—Conquest of Normandy and Guienne—Last years of Charles VII. —Accession of Louis XI. —His character and early actions—League of the Public Weal—Treaty of Conflans—Charles the Bold and Liége—Louis recovers Normandy—Interview at Péronne—Charles of France rec
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CHAPTER XVII GERMANY AND THE HAPSBURG EMPERORS, 1437-1493
CHAPTER XVII GERMANY AND THE HAPSBURG EMPERORS, 1437-1493
German disunion in the fifteenth century—The House of Hapsburg—The succession in Hungary and Bohemia—The Imperial election in 1438—Death of Albert II. —Election of Frederick III. —Death of Frederick I. of Brandenburg—Futile opposition in Germany to the Emperor and the Papacy—Frederick III. at war with the Swiss—Sigismund of Tyrol—Succession to Albert II. in Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia—Ladislas Postumus—Relief of Belgrade and death of John Hunyadi—Death of Ladislas Postumus—Austria falls to the
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CHAPTER XVIII THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE AND THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS
CHAPTER XVIII THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE AND THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS
Relations of Germany in the fourteenth century with Scandinavians and Slavs—The towns of southern and northern Germany—Unions of German merchants abroad—Trade in the Baltic and the North Sea—Alliance of Lübeck and Hamburg—Origin of the Hanseatic League—Aggressions of Eric Menved—Collapse of Denmark and revival of the League—Waldemar III. and the capture of Wisby—The Hanse towns at war with Waldemar—Treaty of Stralsund—The League at the zenith of its power—Queen Margaret and the Union of Kalmar—W
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CHAPTER XIX THE TEUTONIC ORDER AND POLAND
CHAPTER XIX THE TEUTONIC ORDER AND POLAND
Foundation of the Teutonic Order—Struggles of Germans and Slavs in the Baltic provinces—The Knights are invited to Prussia—Their conquests—Quarrel with the Papacy and complete transfer of the Order to Prussia—Further territorial acquisitions—The Order at the height of its power under Kniprode—Union of Poland and Lithuania—The Battle of Tannenberg—Decline of the Order—Internal discontent and disorder in Prussia—The Prussian League—Civil war and Polish conquest—The Peace of Thorn—End of the Teuton
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CHAPTER XX THE CHRISTIAN STATES OF SPAIN
CHAPTER XX THE CHRISTIAN STATES OF SPAIN
Suspension of the Moorish wars in the middle of the thirteenth century—Constitution of Castile—Disorders in the kingdom—Alfonso XI. ’s victories over the Moors—Peter the Cruel and Henry of Trastamara—John of Gaunt in Spain—John II. of Castile and Alvaro de Luna—Henry III. and the accession of Isabella in Castile—The Constitution of Aragon—Acquisition of Sicily and Sardinia—The general Privilege and the Privilege of Union—Reign of Peter IV. —Re-union of Sicily with Aragon—Accession of the House o
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CHAPTER XXI THE GREEK EMPIRE AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS
CHAPTER XXI THE GREEK EMPIRE AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS
The Greek Empire after the recovery of Constantinople in 1261—The reigns of Michael VIII. and Andronicus II. —The Grand Company of the Catalans—Civil war and deposition of Andronicus II. —The Seljuk and Ottoman Turks—Conquests of Othman and Orchan—The tribute of children—John V. and John Cantacuzenos—Stephen Dushan and the Empire of Servia—First conquests of the Turks in Europe—Vassalage of the Greek Empire—Turkish successes against the Slavonic States—Bajazet I. attacks Constantinople—Battle of
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CHAPTER XXII THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY
CHAPTER XXII THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY
Some differences between mediæval and modern history—The period of the Renaissance is the transition between the two periods—The Renaissance in its wider and in its narrower sense—Prominence of Italy in the Renaissance—The revival of letters—Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio—The age of collectors—The age of criticism—The revival of art—(1) Painting—(2) Sculpture—(3) Architecture—Humanism and the Reformation—The impulse given to education. The division of history into periods is always arbitrary, an
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APPENDIX GENEALOGICAL TABLES
APPENDIX GENEALOGICAL TABLES
A. The Succession in Bohemia. (See p. 15 .) B. The Succession in Tyrol. (See pp. 107 and 120 .) C. The House of Hapsburg. Note. —The Hapsburg territories were divided between Albert III. and his brother Leopold, the former taking Austria, and the latter all the rest. Of the sons of Leopold, Ernest succeeded to Styria and Carinthia, Frederick to Tyrol and the lands in Swabia. The Albertine line became extinct with the death of Ladislas Postumus, when Austria passed to Frederick III. , and the lat
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