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PREFACE.
PREFACE.
The introduction of quinine-yielding Chinchona-trees into India, and the cultivation of the "Peruvian Bark" in our Eastern possessions, where that inestimable febrifuge is almost a necessary of life, has for some years engaged the attention of the Indian Government. In 1859 the author of the present work was intrusted, by the Secretary of State for India in Council, with the duty of superintending all the necessary arrangements for the collection of Chinchona-plants and seeds of the species este
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POSTSCRIPT.
POSTSCRIPT.
Oct. 16, 1862. LATEST INTELLIGENCE OF THE CHINCHONA PLANTS, FROM THE NEILGHERRY HILLS. Number of Chinchona plants on the Neilgherry Hills on August 31st, 1862. The total number of plants permanently placed out in the plantations, on August 31st, 1862, was 13,700, and, although only recently transplanted, they are in a very promising condition. The number placed out, at the same date, in the nurseries in the open air, and in the hardening-off frames, was 18,076, all in the finest possible state o
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CHAPTER I.
CHAPTER I.
DISCOVERY OF PERUVIAN BARK. The Countess of Chinchon—Introduction of the use of bark into Europe—M. La Condamine's first description of a Chinchona -tree—J. de Jussieu—Description of the Chinchona region—The different valuable species—The discovery of quinine. The whole world, and especially all tropical countries where intermittent fevers prevail, have long been indebted to the mountainous forests of the Andes for that inestimable febrifuge which has now become indispensable, and the demand for
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CHAPTER II.
CHAPTER II.
The valuable species of Chinchona-trees—their history, their discoverers, and their forests. I.—THE LOXA REGION, AND ITS CROWN BARKS . The region around Loxa, on the southern frontier of the modern republic of Ecuador, is the original home of the Chinchona, and nearly in the centre of its latitudinal range of growth. On the lofty grass-covered slopes of the Andes, around the little town of Loxa, and in the sheltered ravines and dense forests, those precious trees were found which first made know
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CHAPTER III.
CHAPTER III.
Rapid destruction of chinchona-trees in South America—Importance of their introduction into other countries—M. Hasskarl's mission—Chinchona plantations in Java. The collection of bark in the South American forests was conducted from the first with reckless extravagance; no attempt worthy the name has ever been made either with a view to the conservancy or cultivation of the chinchona-trees; and both the complete abandonment of the forests to the mercy of every speculator, as in Peru, Ecuador, an
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CHAPTER IV.
CHAPTER IV.
INTRODUCTION OF CHINCHONA-PLANTS INTO INDIA. PRELIMINARY ARRANGEMENTS. The distribution of valuable products of the vegetable kingdom amongst the nations of the earth—their introduction from countries where they are indigenous into distant lands with suitable soils and climates—is one of the greatest benefits that civilization has conferred upon mankind. Such measures ensure immediate material increase of comfort and profit, while their effects are more durable than the proudest monuments of eng
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CHAPTER V.
CHAPTER V.
ISLAY AND AREQUIPA. The port of Islay is the commercial outlet of the departments of Arequipa, Cuzco, and Puno, in Southern Peru; and thus a small town, dating from about 1830, [118] has risen up on the rocky barren coast, surrounded by a sandy desert, and shut in from the interior by a range of sterile mountains. The coast consists of inaccessible cliffs, perforated with deep caves by the incessant surge of the ocean, with several rocky islets off the shore. The anchorage [119] is formed by a s
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CHAPTER VI.
CHAPTER VI.
JOURNEY ACROSS THE CORDILLERA TO PUNO. In the region of the cordillera of the Andes, in Northern and Central Peru, the country is broken up into deep warm valleys and profound ravines, separated by lofty precipitous ridges and snowy peaks, which combine to form some of the most magnificent scenery in the world. Vast flocks of sheep and alpacas find pasture on the upland slopes, while abundance of wheat is grown lower down. Indian corn generally flourishes at a still lower elevation, though it is
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CHAPTER VII.
CHAPTER VII.
LAKE TITICACA. The Aymara Indians—Their antiquities—Tiahuanaco—Coati—Sillustani—Copacabana. The region which is drained by rivers flowing from the maritime cordillera and the eastern range of the Andes into lake Titicaca consists of elevated plateaux, seldom less than 13,000 feet above the sea, which were originally inhabited by the Aymara race of Indians, a people differing in some respects from the Indians of Cuzco and further north, and whose civilization dates from a period far anterior to t
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CHAPTER VIII.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE PERUVIAN INDIANS: Their condition under Spanish colonial rule. In reviewing the deplorable results of Spanish domination in South America, it may at once be conceded that the legislation which originated from the councils of the kings of Castile was always, except in matters connected with religion, remarkable for beneficence and liberality in all that concerned the natives; and that, in the words of Mr. Helps, "those humane and benevolent laws, which emanated from time to time from the Home
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CHAPTER IX.
CHAPTER IX.
NARRATIVE OF THE INSURRECTION OF JOSÉ GABRIEL TUPAC AMARU, THE LAST OF THE INCAS. The basin of lake Titicaca is bounded on the north by the mountains of Vilcañota, which unite the maritime cordillera with the Eastern Andes, and the river of Vilcamayu rises in these mountains, and flows north through a fertile and well-peopled valley, which is covered with fields of Indian corn. The road from Puno to Cuzco, after crossing the Vilcañota range by the pass of Santa Rosa, descends the valley of the V
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CHAPTER X.
CHAPTER X.
DIEGO TUPAC AMARU—FATE OF THE INCA'S FAMILY—INSURRECTION OF PUMACAGUA. While the events occurred in the valley of Vilcamayu which ended in the capture of the Inca Tupac Amaru and his family, the whole of the Collao was in a state of insurrection, and all Spaniards had to escape for their lives to Puno, La Paz, or Arequipa. Don Joaquim Antonio de Orellana, [240] Governor of Puno, made a most gallant defence of that town, with a force consisting of 180 musketeers, 647 pikemen, 44 artillerymen with
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CHAPTER XI.
CHAPTER XI.
JOURNEY FROM PUNO TO CRUCERO, THE CAPITAL OF CARAVAYA. On April 7th we left Puno on the road to the chinchona forests of Caravaya. There are three modes of travelling in Peru: one by purchasing all the required mules and employing servants; the second, by hiring an arriero , or muleteer, who supplies the mules at so much for the journey; and the third, by using the wretched animals which are provided at the post-houses, and changing them at each stage, but this can only be done on the main roads
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CHAPTER XII.
CHAPTER XII.
THE PROVINCE OF CARAVAYA. A short Historical and Geographical Description. The Peruvian province of Caravaya is drained by streams which form part of the system of one of the largest and least known of the tributaries of the Amazon—the river Purus. The Purus is the only great affluent flowing into the Amazon from the south, the course of which has never yet been explored. We have detailed accounts of the Huallaga from Maw, Smyth, Poeppig, and Herndon; of the Ucayali from Smyth, Herndon, and Cast
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CHAPTER XIII.
CHAPTER XIII.
CARAVAYA.—THE VALLEY OF SANDIA. On the 18th of April I left Crucero, on my way to the chinchona forests, rather late in the afternoon, accompanied by Mr. Weir the gardener, a young mestizo named Pablo Sevallos, and two cargo-mules. After a ride of three leagues along the bleak plain of Crucero, covered with coarse Stipa and stunted Cacti , we reached a little shepherd's hut, called Choclari-piña, at dusk. It was built of loose stones, with a sheepskin hung across the doorway, but with no plaster
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CHAPTER XIV.
CHAPTER XIV.
COCA-CULTIVATION. The coca-leaf is the great source of comfort and enjoyment to the Peruvian Indian; it is to him what betel is to the Hindoo, kava to the South Sea Islander, and tobacco to the rest of mankind; but its use produces invigorating effects which are not possessed by the other stimulants. From the most ancient times the Peruvians have used this beloved leaf, and they still look upon it with feelings of superstitious veneration. In the time of the Incas it was sacrificed to the Sun, t
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CHAPTER XV.
CHAPTER XV.
CARAVAYA. Chinchona forests of Tambopata. On the morning of April 27th we crossed a rude bridge over the Huari-huari, and began to make our way up the face of the steep mountain on the other side, first through a thick forest, and then up into the grassy highlands, until, after several halts, we at length reached the summit of the ridge, though a mountain-peak still rose up in our rear. From this point there was a most extensive panoramic view. A sea of ridges rose one behind the other, with stu
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CHAPTER XVI.
CHAPTER XVI.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CHINCHONA-PLANTS OF CARAVAYA. The range of my observations in the chinchona-forests extended for a distance of forty miles along the western side of the ravine of Tambopata, and one day's journey on the eastern side. This region is covered, with few exceptions, from the banks of the river to the summits of the mountain-peaks, by a dense tropical forest. The formation is everywhere, as I have before said, an unfossiliferous, micaceous, slightly ferruginous, metamorphic clay
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CHAPTER XVII.
CHAPTER XVII.
JOURNEY FROM THE FORESTS OF TAMBOPATA TO THE PORT OF ISLAY. Establishment of the plants in Wardian cases. On May 11th Mr. Weir completed the packing of the plants, and we were preparing for the journey up into the pajonales on the following day, having previously fixed on the Calisaya -trees from which we intended to obtain a supply of seeds in August, when Gironda received an ominous letter from Don José Mariano Bobadilla, the Alcalde Municipal of Quiaca, ordering him to prevent me from taking
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CHAPTER XVIII.
CHAPTER XVIII.
PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF PERU. Population—Civil wars—Government—Constitution—General Castilla and his ministers—Dr. Vigil—Mariano Paz Soldan—Valleys on the coast—Cotton, wool, and specie—The Amazons—Guano—Finances—Literature—Future prospects. After a sojourn of a few days at Lima we took a final farewell of the land of the Incas, on June 29th, 1860. As we steamed along the coast, in sight of the emerald-green valleys, surrounded by trackless wastes of sand, and of the glorious c
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CHAPTER XIX.
CHAPTER XIX.
Mr. Spruce's expedition to procure plants and seeds of the "red bark" or C. succirubra —Mr. Pritchett in the Huanuco region, and the "grey barks"—Mr. Cross's proceedings at Loxa, and collection of seeds of C. Condaminea . In a previous chapter I have given an account of the arrangements which I made for procuring the various species of Chinchonæ in districts other than that of the Calisaya, and it now remains for me to record the labours of those whom I employed on this service, and the successf
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CHAPTER XX.
CHAPTER XX.
CONVEYANCE OF CHINCHONA-PLANTS AND SEEDS FROM SOUTH AMERICA TO INDIA. Transmission of dried specimens—Voyages of plants in Wardian cases—Arrival of plants and seeds in India—Depôt at Kew—Treatment of plants in Wardian cases—Effects of introduction of chinchona-plants into India on trade in South America—Neilgherry hills. The attempt to make simultaneous collections of seeds and plants of all the valuable species of chinchonæ was thus crowned with almost complete success. Out of my original schem
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CHAPTER XXI.
CHAPTER XXI.
MALABAR. Calicut—Houses and gardens—Population of Malabar—Namburi Brahmins—Nairs—Tiars—Slaves—Moplahs—Assessment of rice-fields, of gardens, of dry crops—Other taxes—Voyage up the Beypoor river—The Conolly teak plantations—Wundoor—Backwood cultivation—Sholacul—Sispara ghaut—Black-wood—Scenery—Sispara—View of the Nellemboor valley—Avalanche—Arrival at Ootacamund. He who would desire to receive the most pleasant impression of India, on a first arrival, must follow in the wake of Vasco de Gama, and
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CHAPTER XXII.
CHAPTER XXII.
NEILGHERRY HILLS. Extent—Formation—Soil—Climate—Flora—Hill tribes—Todars—Antiquities—Badagas—Koters—Kurumbers—Irulas—English stations—Kotergherry—Ootacamund—Coonoor—Jakatalla—Government gardens at Ootacamund and Kalhutty—Mr. McIvor—Coffee cultivation—Rules for sale of waste lands—Forest conservancy. The Neilgherry [399] hills, between latitude 11° 10' and 11° 32' N., and longitude 76° 59' and 77° 31' E., form the most elevated mountain mass in India, south of the Himalayas; the highest peak, tha
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CHAPTER XXIII.
CHAPTER XXIII.
SELECTION OF SITES FOR CHINCHONA-PLANTATIONS ON THE NEILGHERRY HILLS. The Dodabetta site—The Neddiwuttum site. In selecting sites for chinchona plantations in the Neilgherry hills we had to compare the climate and other conditions of growth which prevail in the chinchona forests and open pajonales in the Andes with any similar localities which might be found in Southern India. For the first experimental sites, it was of course important that the resemblance, as regards elevation, temperature, an
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CHAPTER XXIV.
CHAPTER XXIV.
JOURNEY TO THE PULNEY HILLS. Coonoor ghaut—Coimbatore—Pulladom—Cotton cultivation—Dharapurum—A marriage procession—Dindigul—Ryotwarry tenure—Pulney hills—Kodakarnal—Extent of the Pulneys—Formation—Soil—Climate—Inhabitants—Flora—Suitability for chinchona cultivation—Forest conservancy—Anamallay hills. In the end of November I set out from Ootacamund, by way of the Coonoor ghaut and Coimbatore, with the intention of examining the suitability of the Pulney hills in Madura for chinchona cultivation.
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CHAPTER XXV.
CHAPTER XXV.
MADURA AND TRICHINOPOLY. Arrive at Madura—Peopling of India—The Dravidian race—Brahmin colonists in Southern India—Foundation of Madura—Pandyan dynasty—Tamil literature—Aghastya—Naik dynasty—The Madura Pagoda—The Sangattar—The Choultry—Tirumalla Naik's palace—Caste prejudices—Trichinopoly—Coleroon anicut—Rice cultivation—The palmyra palm—Caroor—Return to the Neilgherries—Shervaroy hills—Courtallum. The road from the foot of the Pulney hills to Madura, a distance of upwards of forty miles, is ver
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CHAPTER XXVI.
CHAPTER XXVI.
MYSORE AND COORG. Seegoor ghaut—Sandal-wood—Mysore—Seringapatam—Hoonsoor—The tannery—Fraserpett—Mercara—The fort—The Rajahs of Coorg—The Coorgs—Origin of the river Cauvery—Coorg—Climate—Coffee cultivation—Sites for chinchona-plantations—Caryota Urens—Virarajendrapett—Cardamom cultivation—Kumari—Poon, blackwood, and teak—Pepper cultivation in Malabar—Cannanore—Nuggur and Baba Bodeen hills—The Beebee of Cannanore—Compta—Sedashighur—Arrive at Bombay. The descent from the plateau of the Neilgherries
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CHAPTER XXVII.
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE MAHABALESHWUR HILLS AND THE DECCAN. Journey from Bombay to Malcolm-penth—The Mahabaleshwur Hills—The village and its temples—Elevation of the hills—Formation—Soil—Climate—Vegetation—Sites for chinchona-plantations—Paunchgunny—Waee—Its temples—The babool-tree—Shirwul—The village system—Village officials—Barra balloota—Cultivators—Festivals—Crops and harvests—Poona—The Bhore ghaut—Return to Bombay. The districts best adapted for the cultivation of chinchona-plants are those in the southern par
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CHAPTER XXVIII.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
CULTIVATION OF THE CHINCHONA-PLANTS IN THE NEILGHERRY HILLS, UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF MR. McIVOR. In previous chapters detailed accounts have been given of the proceedings connected with the collection of chinchona plants and seeds in South America, their conveyance to India, and the selection of suitable sites for their cultivation. It now only remains to record the progress of this important experiment in the Neilgherry hills during the last year, and to offer some remarks on the contempla
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CHAPTER XXIX.
CHAPTER XXIX.
CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION. Ceylon—Sikkim—Bhotan—Khassya Hills—Pegu—Jamaica—Conclusion. The complete success which has attended the cultivation of chinchona-plants in the Neilgherry hills, encourages the hope that similar happy results will follow their introduction into other hill districts of Southern India, which have been described in more or less detail in previous chapters. I have no doubt of the suitability of the Pulney hills, the Koondahs, the Anamallays, and Coorg for such experimental cult
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APPENDIX A.
APPENDIX A.
GENERAL MILLER, AND THE FOREIGN OFFICERS WHO SERVED IN THE PATRIOT ARMIES OF CHILE AND PERU, BETWEEN 1817 AND 1830. When the war of independence broke out in South America, many gallant spirits were attracted from different countries of Europe to fight for liberty and justice against Spanish oppression. Fired with enthusiasm for the cause of liberty, these knights errant, many of whom had been distinguished in the wars of Napoleon and Wellington, went forth to risk their lives for an idea. That
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APPENDIX B.
APPENDIX B.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE GENUS CHINCHONA, AND OF THE SPECIES OF CHINCHONÆ NOW GROWING IN INDIA AND CEYLON. From Weddell, Howard's Pavon, Spruce, and Karsten. CHINCHONA. ( From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 17.) Calyx tubo turbinato, cum ovario connato, pubescente; limbo supero, 5-dentato, persistente; dentibus in præfloratione valvatis. Corolla hypocrateriformis, tubo tereti vel subpentagono, in angulis baseos nonnunquam fisso, intus glabro vel rarissime pilosiusculo; li
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APPENDIX C.
APPENDIX C.
NOTES ON THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS EMPLOYED IN INDIA, ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR REAL OR SUPPOSED FEBRIFUGE VIRTUES. BY ALEXANDER SMITH, ESQ. The following enumeration of Indian febrifuge plants, though, from the limited time at my disposal, not so complete as could be wished, will serve to give an idea of the great variety of indigenous plants used by the natives of India in the treatment of the different kinds of fevers so prevalent in that country. European physicians of the present day rely to a great e
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APPENDIX D.
APPENDIX D.
REPORT ON THE CULTIVATION OF CHINCHONAS IN SOUTHERN INDIA. BY WILLIAM G. McIVOR, ESQ., SUPERINTENDENT OF CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION IN THE NEILGHERRY HILLS. Rearing Seeds. — The first sowing of imported seeds took place in the beginning of February 1860. No certain data being given for the treatment of Chinchona-seeds, our first operations were necessarily experimental, and a good number of seeds were lost by being sown in too retentive a soil, and supplied with what, to Chinchona-seeds, proved to be
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APPENDIX E.
APPENDIX E.
NOTE ON THE EXPORT TRADE IN PERUVIAN BARK FROM THE PORTS OF SOUTH AMERICA, AND ON THE IMPORT TRADE INTO ENGLAND. Arica , the port for the " Calisaya " bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the export of bark amounted to 192,600 lbs., valued at 17,334 l. ; and between January and November, 1860, to 388,800 lbs., valued at 35,000 l. Islay , another port for the " Calisaya " bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the export of bark amounted to 146,000 lbs., valued at 13,460 l. (of which 136,500 lbs. went to England, and
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