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Pompeii, Its Life And Art

August Mau

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POMPEII ITS LIFE AND ART

POMPEII ITS LIFE AND ART

PLATE I.—VIEW OF THE FORUM, LOOKING TOWARD VESUVIUS POMPEII ITS LIFE AND ART BY AUGUST MAU GERMAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE IN ROME Translated into English BY FRANCIS W. KELSEY UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS AND PHOTOGRAPHS NEW EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED New York THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN &amp; CO., Ltd. 1902 All rights reserved Copyright, 1899, 1902, By FRANCIS W. KELSEY. First Edition, October, 1899. New Revised Edition, with addi

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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

For twenty-five years Professor Mau has devoted himself to the study of Pompeii, spending his summers among the ruins and his winters in Rome, working up the new material. He holds a unique place among the scholars who have given attention to Pompeian antiquities, and his contributions to the literature of the subject have been numerous in both German and Italian. The present volume, however, is not a translation of one previously issued, but a new work first published in English, the liberality

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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The author and the translator unite in expressing their deep appreciation of the kind reception accorded to the first edition of this book. The second edition has been revised on the spot. Besides minor additions, it has been enlarged by a chapter on the recently discovered temple of Venus Pompeiana, and a Bibliographical Appendix; prepared in response to requests from various quarters. Among the new illustrations in the text are a restoration of the temple of Vespasian and a reproduction of the

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CHAPTER I THE SITUATION OF POMPEII

CHAPTER I THE SITUATION OF POMPEII

From Gaeta, where the south end of the Volscian range borders abruptly upon the sea, to the peninsula of Sorrento, a broad gulf stretched in remote ages, cutting its way far into the land. Its waves dashed upon the base of the mountains which now, rising with steep slope, mark the eastern boundary of the Campanian Plain—Mt. Tifata above Capua, Mt. Taburno back of Nola, and lying across the southeast corner, the huge mass of Monte Sant' Angelo, whose sharply defined line of elevation is continued

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CHAPTER II BEFORE 79

CHAPTER II BEFORE 79

When Pompeii was founded we do not know. It is more than likely that a site so well adapted for a city was occupied at an early date. The oldest building, the Doric temple in the Forum Triangulare, is of the style of the sixth century B.C. ; we are safe in assuming that the city was then already in existence. [2] The founders were Oscans. They belonged to a widely scattered branch of the Italic stock, whose language, closely related with the Latin, has been imperfectly recovered from a considera

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CHAPTER III THE CITY OVERWHELMED

CHAPTER III THE CITY OVERWHELMED

Previous to the terrible eruption of 79, Vesuvius was considered an extinct volcano. "Above these places," says Strabo, writing in the time of Augustus, "lies Vesuvius, the sides of which are well cultivated, even to the summit. This is level, but quite unproductive. It has a cindery appearance; for the rock is porous and of a sooty color, the appearance suggesting that the whole summit may once have been on fire and have contained craters, the fires of which died out when there was no longer an

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CHAPTER IV THE UNEARTHING OF THE CITY

CHAPTER IV THE UNEARTHING OF THE CITY

The first excavations at Pompeii were undertaken by the survivors shortly after the destruction of the city. As the upper parts of the houses that had not fallen in projected above the surface, it was possible to locate the places under which objects of value were buried. Men dug down from the surface at certain points and tunnelled from room to room underneath, breaking through the intervening walls. This work was facilitated by the stratification of the volcanic deposit; the loose bits of pumi

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NOTES TO PLAN I

NOTES TO PLAN I

The Regions are given as they were laid out by Fiorelli ( p. 34 ), the boundaries being marked by broken lines. The Insulae are designated by Arabic numerals. Stabian Street, between Stabian and Vesuvius gates, separating Regions VIII, VII, and VI, from I, IX, and V, is often called Cardo, from analogy with the cardo maximus (the north and south line) of a Roman camp. Nola Street, leading from the Nola Gate, with its continuations (Strada della Fortuna, south of Insulae 10, 12, 13, and 14 of Reg

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CHAPTER V A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW

CHAPTER V A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW

The outline of Pompeii, with its network of streets, may be traced on the accompanying plan. The city took its shape from the end of the old lava stream on which it lay, which ran southeast from Vesuvius. It formed an irregular oval a little less than four fifths of a mile (1200 metres) long and a little more than two fifths of a mile (720 metres) wide in its greatest dimensions. On three sides, west, south, and east, the wall of the city ran along the edge of the hill; on the northwest side, be

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CHAPTER VI BUILDING MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION, AND ARCHITECTURAL PERIODS

CHAPTER VI BUILDING MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION, AND ARCHITECTURAL PERIODS

Six centuries lie between the dates of the earliest and the latest buildings at Pompeii; and in order to understand any structure rightly we must first of all ascertain to what period it belongs. It is indeed rarely possible to fix dates with exactness for the earlier time; but certain periods are so clearly differentiated from one another, that in most cases there is no room for doubt to which of them a building is to be assigned. Before undertaking to characterize these periods, however, it wi

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CHAPTER VII THE FORUM

CHAPTER VII THE FORUM

The Forum is usually approached from the west side by the short, steep street leading from the Porta Marina. Entering, we find ourselves near the lower end of an oblong open space ( Plate I ), at the upper end of which, toward Vesuvius, stands a high platform of masonry with the ruins of a temple—the temple of Jupiter; the remains of a colonnade are seen on each of the other three sides. Including the colonnade the Forum measures approximately 497 feet in length by 156 in breadth; without it the

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CHAPTER VIII GENERAL VIEW OF THE BUILDINGS ABOUT THE FORUM—THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER

CHAPTER VIII GENERAL VIEW OF THE BUILDINGS ABOUT THE FORUM—THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER

The Forum was to the ancient city what the atrium was to the early Italic house; it was used for every purpose for which a special place was not provided elsewhere. And as sleeping rooms, dining rooms, and storerooms were grouped about the atrium and opened into it, so around the Forum lay the edifices which served the requirements of the public life,—the most important temples, the municipal buildings, and market houses or exchanges for different branches of business. Three temples adjoined the

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CHAPTER IX THE BASILICA

CHAPTER IX THE BASILICA

The Basilica, at the southwest corner of the Forum, was the most magnificent and architecturally the most interesting building at Pompeii. Its construction and decoration point to the pre-Roman time; and there is also an inscription scratched on the stucco of the wall, dating from almost the beginning of the Roman colony: C. Pumidius Dipilus heic fuit a. d. v. nonas Octobreis M. Lepid. Q. Catul. cos. ,—'C. Pumidius Dipilus was here on the fifth day before the nones of October in the consulship o

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CHAPTER X THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO

CHAPTER X THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO

In some respects the study of the large temple on the west side of the Forum is especially satisfactory. The building had been completely restored after the earthquake of 63, and was in good order at the time of its destruction. Though ancient excavators removed many objects of value, including the statue of the divinity of the temple, much was left undisturbed, as the interesting series of statues in the court; in addition, a number of inscriptions have been recovered. On the whole, more comple

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CHAPTER XI THE BUILDINGS AT THE NORTHWEST CORNER OF THE FORUM, AND THE TABLE OF STANDARD MEASURES

CHAPTER XI THE BUILDINGS AT THE NORTHWEST CORNER OF THE FORUM, AND THE TABLE OF STANDARD MEASURES

The large building at the northwest corner of the Forum ( Fig. 33 , 1, 2, 3) was erected after the earthquake of the year 63. We do not know whether at the time of the eruption it had yet been roofed; the inside at least was in an unfinished state. Fig. 33.—Plan of the buildings at the northwest corner of the Forum. View larger image This building is divided into three parts, one of which, that furthest north, at the corner, contains both lower and upper rooms. Below, at the level of the Forum,

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CHAPTER XII THE MACELLUM

CHAPTER XII THE MACELLUM

The large building at the northeast corner of the Forum was a provision market, of the sort called Macellum . The name Pantheon, once applied to it, is now abandoned, and there is no longer the slightest doubt regarding its purpose, which is indicated by its general plan, the remains found in the course of the excavations, and the paintings upon the walls. Such markets, where provisions, especially of the finer and more expensive kinds, were sold and in which a cook also might be secured, withou

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CHAPTER XIII THE SANCTUARY OF THE CITY LARES

CHAPTER XIII THE SANCTUARY OF THE CITY LARES

In earlier times a street opened into the Forum south of the Macellum. Later, apparently in the time of Augustus, it was closed, and the end, together with adjoining space at the south, was occupied by a building which measures approximately sixty by seventy Roman feet. In richness of material and architectural detail this was among the finest edifices at Pompeii. Its walls and floors were completely covered with marble. Now we see only rough masonry, stripped of its veneering, but enough vestig

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CHAPTER XIV THE TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN

CHAPTER XIV THE TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN

South of the sanctuary of the City Lares is another religious edifice of an entirely different character. Passing from the Forum across the open space once occupied by the portico—of which no remains have been found—we enter a wide doorway and find ourselves in a four-sided court somewhat irregular in shape ( Fig. 43 ). The front part is occupied by a colonnade (1). Fig. 43.—Plan of the temple of Vespasian. View larger image At the rear a small temple (3) stands upon a high podium which projects

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CHAPTER XV THE BUILDING OF EUMACHIA

CHAPTER XV THE BUILDING OF EUMACHIA

Fig. 47.—Plan of the building of Eumachia. View larger image The plan of the large building on the east side of the Forum, between the temple of Vespasian and Abbondanza Street, is simple and regular. In front is a deep portico (1), facing the Forum. The interior consists of a large oblong court with three apses at the rear and a colonnade about the four sides (9); on three sides there is a corridor behind the colonnade, with numerous windows opening upon it (12). The corridor could be entered b

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CHAPTER XVI THE COMITIUM

CHAPTER XVI THE COMITIUM

The last building on the east side of the Forum, south of Abbondanza Street, had undergone a complete transformation a short time before the destruction of the city. Before the rebuilding, a row of pillars separated the interior of the structure from the Forum and from the street. At the edge of the sidewalk along the latter are square holes opposite the pillars (shown on the plan, Fig. 51 ), evidently designed for the insertion of posts, so that a temporary barrier of some sort could be set up.

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CHAPTER XVII THE MUNICIPAL BUILDINGS

CHAPTER XVII THE MUNICIPAL BUILDINGS

At the south end of the Forum were three buildings similar in plan and closely connected. In front they presented a common façade, the narrow spaces between them being entered by low doors. The building at the right ( Fig. 52 , 3) was at the corner of the Forum, while the space separating the other two lay on a line dividing the Forum into two equal parts; east of the last building is the Strada delle Scuole. Fig. 52.—Plan of the Municipal Buildings. View larger image The three buildings were er

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CHAPTER XVIII THE TEMPLE OF VENUS POMPEIANA

CHAPTER XVIII THE TEMPLE OF VENUS POMPEIANA

For some years it had been known that a temple once stood in the rectangular block south of the strada della Marina; and in 1898 workmen excavating here began to uncover the massive foundations. When the volcanic deposits had been removed it was seen that the court of the temple, with the surrounding colonnade, occupied the whole area between the Basilica and the west wall of the long room now used as a Museum. On the podium ( Fig. 55 ) was found a part of a statuette of Venus, of the familiar t

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CHAPTER XIX THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA AUGUSTA

CHAPTER XIX THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA AUGUSTA

Passing out from the Forum under the arch at the northeast corner, we enter the broadest street in Pompeii. On the right a colonnade over the sidewalk runs along the front of the first block, at the further corner of which, where Forum Street opens into Nola Street, stands the small temple of Fortuna Augusta. The front of the temple is in a line with the colonnade, which seems to have been designed as a continuation of the colonnade about the Forum; the builders apparently wished to have it appe

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CHAPTER XX GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUBLIC BUILDINGS NEAR THE STABIAN GATE—THE FORUM TRIANGULARE AND THE DORIC TEMPLE

CHAPTER XX GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUBLIC BUILDINGS NEAR THE STABIAN GATE—THE FORUM TRIANGULARE AND THE DORIC TEMPLE

The end of the old lava stream on which Pompeii lay runs off into two points; in the depression between them, as we have seen, was the Stabian Gate. On the edge of the spur at the left a temple of the Doric style was built in very early times. The descent here, toward the southwest, is so sharp and the height so great that it was not necessary to add a wall at the top as a means of defence. The sides of the temple followed in general the direction of the edge of the cliff. Raised upon a high fou

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CHAPTER XXI THE LARGE THEATRE

CHAPTER XXI THE LARGE THEATRE

Performances upon the stage were first given in Rome in the year 364 B.C. ; a pestilence was raging, and the Romans thought to appease the gods by a new kind of celebration in their honor. The performers were brought from Etruria, and the exercises were limited to dancing, with an accompaniment on the flute. There was as yet no Latin drama. The first regular play was presented more than a century later, in 240 B.C. , and the playwright was not a Roman but a Greek from Tarentum, Livius Andronicus

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CHAPTER XXII THE SMALL THEATRE

CHAPTER XXII THE SMALL THEATRE

The names of the builders of the Small Theatre are known from an inscription which is found in duplicate in different parts of the building: C. Quinctius C. f. Valg[us], M. Porcius M. f. duovir[i] dec[urionum] decr[eto] theatrum tectum fac[iundum] locar[unt] eidemq[ue] prob[arunt] ,—'Gaius Quinctius Valgus the son of Gaius and Marcus Porcius the son of Marcus, duumvirs, in accordance with a decree of the city council let the contract for building the covered theatre, and approved the work.' Late

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CHAPTER XXIII THE THEATRE COLONNADE, USED AS BARRACKS FOR GLADIATORS

CHAPTER XXIII THE THEATRE COLONNADE, USED AS BARRACKS FOR GLADIATORS

'Behind the stage,' says Vitruvius (V. ix.), speaking of the arrangements of the theatre, 'colonnades should be built, that shelter may be afforded to spectators in case of rain and a place provided for making preparations for the stage.' Fig. 71.—Plan of the Theatre Colonnade, showing its relation to the two theatres. View larger image This maxim of ancient architects was applied at Pompeii in a generous way; in connection with the theatres there was an extensive system of colonnades. To unders

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CHAPTER XXIV THE PALAESTRA

CHAPTER XXIV THE PALAESTRA

The oblong court north of the Large Theatre, between the entrance of the Forum Triangulare and the temple of Isis, is the Palaestra. Originally, the enclosed area was entirely surrounded by a colonnade, with ten columns on the sides and five at each end; but at a comparatively late period, probably after the earthquake of 63, the columns at the east end were removed and the space thus gained was added to the temple of Isis. Fig. 75.—Plan of the Palaestra. View larger image A number of the column

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CHAPTER XXV THE TEMPLE OF ISIS

CHAPTER XXV THE TEMPLE OF ISIS

The loftiest and purest religious conceptions of the ancient Egyptians were embodied in the myth of Isis and Osiris, which in the third millennium B.C. had already become the basis of a firmly established cult. These conceptions approached the monotheistic idea of an omnipresent god, and with them was associated a belief in a blessed immortality. Isis was the goddess of heaven, and Osiris was the Sun-god, her brother and husband, who is slain at evening by his brother Set,—the Greek Typhon,—rule

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CHAPTER XXVI THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS MILICHIUS

CHAPTER XXVI THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS MILICHIUS

The small temple near the northeast corner of the block containing the theatres is entered from Stabian Street. The court ( Fig. 84 , 2), like that of the temple of Vespasian, has a colonnade across the front; only the foundation and a Doric capital of lava are preserved. Fig. 84.—Plan of the temple of Zeus Milichius. View larger image At the end of the colonnade on the right is the room of the sacristan (4). The large altar ( Fig. 251 ) stands close to the foot of the steps leading up to the te

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CHAPTER XXVII THE BATHS AT POMPEII.—THE STABIAN BATHS

CHAPTER XXVII THE BATHS AT POMPEII.—THE STABIAN BATHS

In comparison with the great bathing establishments of Rome, the baths at Pompeii are of moderate size. They have, however, a special interest, due in part to their excellent preservation, in part to the certainty with which the purpose of the various rooms can be determined; and their remains enable us to trace the development of the public bath in a single city during a period of almost two hundred years. From this source, moreover, most of our knowledge of the arrangements of the ancient bath

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CHAPTER XXVIII THE BATHS NEAR THE FORUM

CHAPTER XXVIII THE BATHS NEAR THE FORUM

The bathing establishment in the block north of the Forum is smaller and simpler in its arrangements than that described in the last chapter, but the parts are essentially the same. Here also we find a court, with a colonnade on three sides; a system of baths for men, comprising a dressing room (I) with a small round frigidarium (II) opening off from it, a tepidarium (III), and a caldarium (IV); a similar system for women, the place of the frigidarium being taken by a tank for cold baths (2) in

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CHAPTER XXIX THE CENTRAL BATHS

CHAPTER XXIX THE CENTRAL BATHS

Seneca in an entertaining letter (Ep. 86) gives an account of a visit about 60 A.D. to the villa at Liternum in which the Elder Scipio had lived in the years immediately preceding his death, in 183 B.C. The philosopher was particularly struck with the bath, the simplicity of which he contrasts forcibly with the luxurious appointments of his own time. We cannot follow him through the extended disquisition—he speaks of various refinements of luxury of which we find no traces at Pompeii; but he men

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CHAPTER XXX THE AMPHITHEATRE

CHAPTER XXX THE AMPHITHEATRE

In the southeast corner of the city, at a distance from the other excavations, lies the Amphitheatre, the scene of gladiatorial combats. The Pompeians called it 'the show,' spectacula , as in the inscription, preserved in two copies, that gives us the names of the builders: C. Quinctius C. f. Valgus, M. Porcius M. f[ilius] duo vir[i] quinq[uennales] coloniai honoris caussa spectacula de sua peq[unia] fac[iunda] coer[arunt] et coloneis locum in perpetuom deder[unt ]. According to this, the Amphit

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CHAPTER XXXI STREETS, WATER SYSTEM, AND WAYSIDE SHRINES

CHAPTER XXXI STREETS, WATER SYSTEM, AND WAYSIDE SHRINES

Fig. 102.—View of Abbondanza Street, looking east. At the left, fountain of Concordia Augusta, and side entrance of the Eumachia building. In the pavement, three stepping stones. The streets of Pompeii vary greatly in width. The widest is Mercury Street, the continuation of which near the Forum has a breadth of nearly 32 feet. Next come Abbondanza and Nola streets, the greatest width of which is about 28 feet; the other streets and thoroughfares vary from 10 to 20 feet. With unimportant exceptio

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CHAPTER XXXII THE DEFENCES OF THE CITY

CHAPTER XXXII THE DEFENCES OF THE CITY

From the military point of view, Pompeii at the time of the eruption did not possess a system of defences. For many years previously the city wall had been kept in repair only as a convenience in matters of civil administration, and the gates had long since lost all appearance of preparedness to resist attack. The fortifications are not, however, without interest. They form a massive and conspicuous portion of the ruins, and as a survival from an earlier period they have recorded many evidences

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CHAPTER XXXIII THE POMPEIAN HOUSE

CHAPTER XXXIII THE POMPEIAN HOUSE

Our chief sources of information regarding the domestic architecture of ancient Italy are two,—the treatise of Vitruvius, and the remains found at Pompeii. The Pompeian houses present many variations from the plan described by the Roman architect; yet in essential particulars there is no disagreement, and it is not difficult to form a clear conception of their arrangements. The houses of Greco-Roman antiquity differed from those of modern times in several respects. They took their light and air

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CHAPTER XXXIV THE HOUSE OF THE SURGEON

CHAPTER XXXIV THE HOUSE OF THE SURGEON

The house of the Surgeon (casa del Chirurgo) is the oldest of the Pompeian houses that retained to the last, with but slight modifications, its original plan and appearance. It lies at the right of the Strada Consolare (VI. i. 10), about fifty paces inside the Herculaneum Gate. The name was suggested by the discovery of several surgical instruments in one of the rooms. Fig. 132.—Plan of the house of the Surgeon. View larger image This house was undoubtedly built before 200 B.C. The façade ( Fig.

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CHAPTER XXXV THE HOUSE OF SALLUST

CHAPTER XXXV THE HOUSE OF SALLUST

The house of Sallust (VI. ii. 4) received its name from an election notice, painted on the outside, in which Gaius Sallustius was recommended for a municipal office. It has no peristyle, and its original plan closely resembled that of the house of the Surgeon. It was built in the second century B.C. ; the architecture is that of the Tufa Period, and the well preserved decoration of the atrium, tablinum, alae, and the dining room at the left of the tablinum ( Fig. 134 , 22) is of the first style.

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CHAPTER XXXVI THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN

CHAPTER XXXVI THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN

The house of the Faun, so named from the statue of a dancing satyr found in it ( Fig. 258 ), was among the largest and most elegant in Pompeii. It illustrates for us the type of dwelling that wealthy men of cultivated tastes living in the third or second century B.C. built and adorned for themselves. The mosaic pictures found on the floors (now in the Naples Museum) are the most beautiful that have survived to modern times. Fig. 137.—Plan of the house of the Faun. View larger image The wall deco

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CHAPTER 310VII A HOUSE NEAR THE PORTA MARINA

CHAPTER 310VII A HOUSE NEAR THE PORTA MARINA

The height of the important rooms can be accurately determined in so few houses of the Tufa Period, that special importance attaches to a house on the edge of the city north of the Porta Marina (No. 13), in which not merely the three-quarter columns at the entrance of the tablinum, but also the pilasters at the corners of the fauces and alae and part of the Ionic columns of the peristyle are seen in their full height. The atrium is the best preserved of any in the large pre-Roman houses, and the

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CHAPTER XXXVIII THE HOUSE OF THE SILVER WEDDING

CHAPTER XXXVIII THE HOUSE OF THE SILVER WEDDING

Among the more interesting of the large houses excavated in the last decade is the house of the Silver Wedding, which marks the limit of excavation in the fifth Region (V. ii. a on Plan VI ). The main part was cleared in 1892 ( Fig. 8 ); and in April, 1893, in connection with the festivities with which the Silver Wedding of the King and Queen of Italy was celebrated, a special excavation was made in one of the rooms, in the presence of their Majesties and of their imperial guests, the Emperor an

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CHAPTER XXXIX THE HOUSE OF EPIDIUS RUFUS

CHAPTER XXXIX THE HOUSE OF EPIDIUS RUFUS

The house of Epidius Rufus, built, like those previously described, in the pre-Roman time, presents a pleasing example of a Corinthian atrium. In one respect it resembles the oldest Pompeian houses, such as that of the Surgeon; in the place of the peristyle is a garden extending back from a colonnade at the rear of the tablinum. In a period when large peristyles were the fashion, a Pompeian of wealth and taste, whose building lot was ample enough to admit of an extension of his house toward the

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CHAPTER XL THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET

CHAPTER XL THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET

In the "Last Days of Pompeii" the house of the Tragic Poet is presented to us as the home of Glaucus. Though not large, it was among the most attractive in the city. It received its present form and decoration not many years before the eruption, apparently after the earthquake of 63, and well illustrates the arrangements of the Pompeian house of the last years. Fig. 152.—Plan of the house of the Tragic Poet. View larger image The house received its name at the time of excavation, in consequence

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CHAPTER XLI THE HOUSE OF THE VETTII

CHAPTER XLI THE HOUSE OF THE VETTII

The house of the Vettii, excavated in the years 1894-1895, bears the same relation to the other houses built in the Roman period that the house of the Faun does to those of the earlier time; it is the most important representative of its class. It was situated in a quiet part of the city, and was not conspicuous by reason of its size; its interest for us lies chiefly in its paintings and in the adornment of the well preserved peristyle. Fig. 157.—Exterior of the house of the Vettii, restored. Th

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CHAPTER XLII THREE HOUSES OF UNUSUAL PLAN

CHAPTER XLII THREE HOUSES OF UNUSUAL PLAN

In the houses described in the preceding chapters the distribution of the rooms is characterized by a certain regularity, which makes it possible to indicate the arrangements by reference to an ideal or normal plan. A wide departure, however, is occasionally noted; and by way of illustration three houses of unusual plan will be briefly presented here, first a house without an atrium, then one having an atrium but no compluvium, and, lastly, a large establishment built on terraces at different le

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CHAPTER XLIII OTHER NOTEWORTHY HOUSES

CHAPTER XLIII OTHER NOTEWORTHY HOUSES

The houses accorded a detailed description in the previous chapters are few in comparison with the number of those worthy of special study. He alone who has wandered day after day among the ruins, returning again and again to explore the parts of the city which are rarely seen by the hasty visitor, can realize what a wealth of interesting material lies behind the barren walls lining the streets on either side. The location of the houses mentioned incidentally is given in Plan VI , at the end of

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CHAPTER XLIV ROMAN VILLAS.—THE VILLA OF DIOMEDES

CHAPTER XLIV ROMAN VILLAS.—THE VILLA OF DIOMEDES

Two classes of villas were distinguished by the Romans,—the country seat, villa pseudourbana , and the farmhouse, villa rustica . The former was a city house, adapted to rural conditions; the arrangements of the latter were determined by the requirements of farm life. The country seats manifested a greater diversity of plan than the city residences. They were relatively larger, containing spacious colonnades and gardens; as the proprietor was unrestricted in regard to space, not being confined t

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CHAPTER XLV THE VILLA RUSTICA AT BOSCOREALE

CHAPTER XLV THE VILLA RUSTICA AT BOSCOREALE

Less than two miles north of Pompeii, near the village of Boscoreale, a farmhouse was excavated in 1893-94 on the property of Vincenzo de Prisco. In the last century similar buildings were brought to light in the vicinity of Castellammare, but they were covered up again. Especial importance attaches to this villa rustica, both on account of the extreme rarity of examples of the type and because of the character of the remains, which makes it possible to determine the arrangements with certainty.

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CHAPTER XLVI HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE

CHAPTER XLVI HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE

Much less large furniture has been found at Pompeii than is ordinarily supposed. In not a single sleeping room has a bed been preserved; and in only one of all the dining rooms have sufficient remains of the dining couches been found to make it possible to reconstruct them. Beds, couches, chairs, and tables were ordinarily of wood, which crumbled away, leaving slight traces. Reference has been made elsewhere to the marble tables standing in the atrium, and occasionally in other parts of the hous

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CHAPTER XLVII THE TRADES AT POMPEII.—THE BAKERS

CHAPTER XLVII THE TRADES AT POMPEII.—THE BAKERS

In antiquity there was no such distinction between trades and professions as exists to-day. In the Early Empire all activity outside the field of public service, civil and military, or the management of estates, was considered beneath the dignity of a Roman; the practice of law, which had received its impulse largely from the obligation of patrons to protect their clients, was included among public duties. The ordinary work of life was left mainly to slaves and freedmen. Not only the trades, as

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CHAPTER XLVIII THE FULLERS AND THE TANNERS

CHAPTER XLVIII THE FULLERS AND THE TANNERS

The work of the ancient fuller was twofold, to make ready for use the cloth fresh from the loom, and to cleanse garments that had been worn. As the garments used by the Romans were mainly of wool, and needed skilful manipulation to retain their size and shape, they were ordinarily sent out of the house to be cleansed; in consequence the trade of the fuller was relatively important. In the part of Pompeii thus far excavated we find two large fulleries and one smaller establishment that can be ide

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CHAPTER XLIX INNS AND WINESHOPS

CHAPTER XLIX INNS AND WINESHOPS

Wineshops, cauponae , were numerous in Pompeii, and the remains are easily identified. Like the Italian osterie , they were at the same time eating houses, but the arrangements for drinking were the more conspicuous, and give character to the ruins. The Roman inn, hospitium , or simply caupona , was a wineshop with accommodations for the night, provision being also made in most cases for the care of animals. Keepers of inns, caupones , are frequently mentioned in Pompeian inscriptions, sometimes

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CHAPTER L POMPEIAN BURIAL PLACES.—THE STREET OF TOMBS

CHAPTER L POMPEIAN BURIAL PLACES.—THE STREET OF TOMBS

The tombs of Pompeii, like those of Rome, were placed in close array along the sides of the roads that led from the city gates. Only a few have been uncovered; how many still lie concealed under the mantle of volcanic débris that rests upon the plain, no one has yet ventured to conjecture. The tombstone of a magistrate of one of the suburbs was found at Scafati, a mile and a half east of the ancient town; and others have been brought to light on the east, south, and west sides. The most interest

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CHAPTER LI BURIAL PLACES NEAR THE NOLA, STABIAN, AND NOCERA GATES

CHAPTER LI BURIAL PLACES NEAR THE NOLA, STABIAN, AND NOCERA GATES

No part of the highway leading from the Nola Gate has yet been excavated. In the year 1854, however, excavations were made for a short distance along the city wall near this gate, and thirty-six cinerary urns were found buried in the earth. In or near them were perfume vials of terra cotta with a few of glass. Here in the pomerium, the strip of land along the outside of the walls, which was left vacant for religious as well as practical reasons, the poor were permitted to bury the ashes of their

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CHAPTER LII ARCHITECTURE

CHAPTER LII ARCHITECTURE

In the preceding pages the principal buildings of Pompeii have been described, and reference has been made to many works of art. We shall now offer a few observations of a more general nature in regard to the remains of architecture, sculpture, and painting. The different periods in the architectural history of the city have been defined in a previous chapter. The most significant of these, from every point of view, is that which we have called the Tufa Period, which corresponds roughly with the

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CHAPTER LIII SCULPTURE

CHAPTER LIII SCULPTURE

The open squares and public buildings of Pompeii were peopled with statues. The visitor who walked about the Forum in the years immediately preceding the eruption, saw on all sides the forms of the men of past generations who had rendered service to the city, as well as those of men of his own time. Besides the five colossal images of emperors and members of the imperial families, places were provided in the Forum for between seventy and eighty life size equestrian statues; and behind each of th

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CHAPTER LIV PAINTING.—WALL DECORATION

CHAPTER LIV PAINTING.—WALL DECORATION

The inner walls of houses and public buildings at Pompeii were plastered, and usually decorated with colors; only storerooms, kitchens, and apartments designed for the use of slaves were left in the white. Outer walls were as a rule plastered, except when built of hewn stone, a kind of construction not employed after the Tufa Period. Stucco was occasionally used on façades of ashlar work where special ornamentation seemed to be needed, as at the entrance of the house of the Faun; and in later ti

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CHAPTER LV THE PAINTINGS

CHAPTER LV THE PAINTINGS

The hanging of pictures upon the walls seems not to have been in vogue at Pompeii during the period to which the remains belong. The system of decoration left no room for framed paintings, and no traces of any such have been discovered. The paintings which have been preserved at Pompeii, not merely the small groups and single figures introduced to enliven the design, but the large compositions as well, all formed a part of the wall decoration. The number is relatively large. In the catalogue by

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CHAPTER LVI IMPORTANCE OF THE INSCRIPTIONS.—MONUMENTAL INSCRIPTIONS AND PUBLIC NOTICES

CHAPTER LVI IMPORTANCE OF THE INSCRIPTIONS.—MONUMENTAL INSCRIPTIONS AND PUBLIC NOTICES

The inscriptions discovered at Pompeii number more than six thousand. They cover a wide field, ranging from commemorative tablets put up at public expense to the scribblings of idlers upon the plastered walls. It would be an exaggeration to say that they contribute to our knowledge of antiquity much that is new; their value lies rather in the insight which they give into the life of the city and its people. In one respect the evidence derived from inscriptions, though often of the most fragmenta

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CHAPTER LVII THE GRAFFITI

CHAPTER LVII THE GRAFFITI

The graffiti form the largest division of the Pompeian inscriptions, comprising about three thousand examples, or one half of the entire number; the name is Italian, being derived from a verb meaning 'to scratch.' Writing upon walls was a prevalent habit in antiquity, as shown by the remains of graffiti at Rome and other places besides Pompeii, a habit which may be accounted for in part by the use of the sharp-pointed stylus with wax tablets; the temptation to use such an instrument upon the pol

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CHAPTER LVIII INSCRIPTIONS RELATING TO BUSINESS AFFAIRS

CHAPTER LVIII INSCRIPTIONS RELATING TO BUSINESS AFFAIRS

The most important inscriptions relating to business transactions are the receipts, discovered in 1875, which formed a part of the private accounts of L. Caecilius Jucundus ( p. 447 ). They were written on wax tablets, which were carefully packed in a wooden box. The box, which was in the second story of the house, crumbled to pieces when the volcanic dust about it was removed; but many of the tablets, 154 in number, still retained their shape and were taken to the Naples Museum. The wood of the

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CHAPTER LIX SIGNIFICANCE OF THE POMPEIAN CULTURE

CHAPTER LIX SIGNIFICANCE OF THE POMPEIAN CULTURE

The ideals of a nation—the true index of its culture—find expression alike in its laws, its literature, its art, and the environment of daily life. They are a common heritage, which one generation passes on to another with its own increment of change, and their influence extends as far as that of the people whose spirit is manifested in them. Thus it happens that the conditions of culture found in a single city, unless that city, as Athens, had an independent development as a state, are not isol

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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX[4]

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX[4]

CHAPTER I . THE SITUATION OF POMPEII Physical geography of Campania, Vesuvius : Nissen , Italische Landeskunde, vol. I (Berlin, 1883), pp. 263-272; Phillips , Vesuvius (Oxford, 1869); G. vom Rath , Der Vesuv (Berlin, 1873); Palmieri , Il Vesuvio e la sua storia (Milan, 1880); Judd , Volcanoes (International Scientific Series, New York, 1831); Lobley , Mount Vesuvius—A Descriptive, Historical, and Geological Account of the Volcano and its Surroundings (London, 1889); Ruggiero , Della eruzione del

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