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PREFATORY NOTE
PREFATORY NOTE
It is hoped that this book may serve as an outline for a larger work, in which the Judgments here expressed may be supported in detail. Especially, the author desires to treat the literature of the social question and of the modernist movement with a fulness which has not been possible within the limits of this sketch. The philosophy of religion and the history of religions should have place, as also that estimate of the essence of Christianity which is suggested by the contact of Christianity w
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A. INTRODUCTION
A. INTRODUCTION
The Protestant Reformation marked an era both in life and thought for the modern world. It ushered in a revolution in Europe. It established distinctions and initiated tendencies which are still significant. These distinctions have been significant not for Europe alone. They have had influence also upon those continents which since the Reformation have come under the dominion of Europeans. Yet few would now regard the Reformation as epoch-making in the sense in which that pre-eminence has been c
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B. THE BACKGROUND
B. THE BACKGROUND
In England before the end of the Civil War a movement for the rationalisation of religion had begun to make itself felt. It was in full force in the time of the Revolution of 1688. It had not altogether spent itself by the middle of the eighteenth century. The movement has borne the name of Deism. In so far as it had one watchword, this came to be 'natural religion.' The antithesis had in mind was that to revealed religion, as this had been set forth in the tradition of the Church, and particula
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IDEALISTIC PHILOSOPHY
IDEALISTIC PHILOSOPHY
The causes which we have named, religious and æsthetic, as well as purely speculative, led to such a revision of philosophical principles in Germany as took place in no other land. The new idealistic philosophy, as it took shape primarily at the hands of Kant, completed the dissolution of the old rationalism. It laid the foundation for the speculative thought of the western world for the century which was to come. The answers which æstheticism and pietism gave to rationalism were incomplete. The
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KANT
KANT
Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, possibly of remoter Scottish ancestry. His father was a saddler, as Melanchthon's had been an armourer and Wolff's a tanner. His native city with its university was the scene of his whole life and labour. He was never outside of Prussia except for a brief interval when Königsberg belonged to Russia. He was a German professor of the old style. Studying, teaching, writing books, these were his whole existence. He was the fourth of nine children of a de
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FICHTE
FICHTE
Fichte asked, Why? Why must there be a Ding-an-sich ? Why is not that also the result of the activity of the ego? Why is not the ego, the thinking subject, all that is, the creator of the world, according to the laws of thought? If so much is reduced to idea, why not all? This was Fichte's rather forced resolution of the old dualism of thought and thing. It is not the denial of the reality of things, but the assertion that their ideal element, that part of them which is not mere 'thing,' the act
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SCHELLING
SCHELLING
It was the meagreness of Fichte's treatment of nature which impelled Schelling to what he called his outbreak into reality. Nature will not be dismissed, as simply that which is not I. You cannot say that nature is only the sphere of my self-realisation. Individuals are in their way the children of nature. They are this in respect of their souls as much as of their bodies. Nature was before they were. Nature is, moreover, not alien to intelligence. On the contrary, it is a treasure-house of inte
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HEGEL
HEGEL
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was born in Stuttgart in 1770. His father was in the fiscal service of the King of Württemberg. He studied in Tübingen. He was heavy and slow of development, in striking contrast with Schelling. He served as tutor in Bern and Frankfort, and began to lecture in Jena in 1801. He was much overshadowed by Schelling. The victory of Napoleon at Jena in 1806 closed the university for a time. In 1818 he was called to Fichte's old chair in Berlin. Never on very good terms wi
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THEOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION
THEOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION
The outstanding trait of Kant's reflection upon religion is its supreme interest in morals and conduct. Metaphysician that he was, Kant saw the evil which intellectualism had done to religion. Religion was a profoundly real thing to him in his own life. Religion is a life. It is a system of thought only because life is a whole. It is a system of thought only in the way of deposit from a vivid and vigorous life. A man normally reflects on the conditions and aims of what he does. Religion is condu
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SCHLEIERMACHER
SCHLEIERMACHER
Between Kant and Hegel came another, Schleiermacher. He too was no mean philosopher. But he was essentially a theologian, the founder of modern theology. He served in the same faculty with Hegel and was overshadowed by him. His influence upon religious thought was less immediate. It has been more permanent. It was characteristically upon the side which Kant and Hegel had neglected. That was the side of feeling. His theology has been called the theology of feeling. He defined religion as feeling.
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RITSCHL AND THE RITSCHLIANS
RITSCHL AND THE RITSCHLIANS
If any man in the department of theology in the latter half of the nineteenth century attained a position such as to entitle him to be compared with Schleiermacher, it was Ritschl. He was long the most conspicuous figure in any chair of dogmatic theology in Germany. He established a school of theological thinkers in a sense in which Schleiermacher never desired to gain a following. He exerted ecclesiastical influence of a kind which Schleiermacher never sought. He was involved in controversy in
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THE CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL MOVEMENT
THE CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL MOVEMENT
It has been said that in Christian times the relation of philosophy and religion may be determined by the attitude of reason toward a single matter, namely, the churchly doctrine of revelation. 4 There are three possible relations of reason to this doctrine. First, it may be affirmed that the content of religion and theology is matter communicated to man in extraordinary fashion, truth otherwise unattainable, on which it is beyond the competence of reason to sit in judgment. We have then the two
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STRAUSS
STRAUSS
On the other hand, as Pfleiderer has said, we must remember the difficulty which beset the men of that age. Their general culture made it difficult for them to accept the miraculous element in the gospel narrative as it stood. Yet their theory of Scripture gave them no notion as to any other way in which the narratives might be understood. The men had never asked themselves how the narratives arose. In the preface to his Leben Jesu , Strauss said: 'Orthodox and rationalists alike proceed from th
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BAUR
BAUR
Baur, Strauss' own teacher in Tübingen, afterward famous as biblical critic and church-historian, said of Strauss' book, that through it was revealed in startling fashion to that generation of scholars, how little real knowledge they had of the problem which the Gospels present. To Baur it was clear that if advance was to be made beyond Strauss' negative results, the criticism of the gospel history must wait upon an adequate criticism of the documents which are our sources for that history. Stra
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THE CANON
THE CANON
The minds of New Testament scholars in the last generation have been engaged with a question which, in its full significance, was hardly present to the attention of Baur's school. It is the question of the New Testament as a whole. It is the question as to the time and manner and motives of the gathering together of the separate writings into a canon of Scripture which, despite the diversity of its elements, exerted its influence as a unit and to which an authority was ascribed, which the partic
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LIFE OF JESUS
LIFE OF JESUS
We said that the work of Strauss revealed nothing so clearly as the ignorance of his time concerning the documents of the early Christian movement. The labours of Baur and of his followers were directed toward overcoming this difficulty. Suddenly the public interest was stirred, and the earlier excitement recalled by the publication of a new life of Jesus. The author was a Frenchman, Ernest Renan, at one time a candidate for the priesthood in the Roman Church. He was a man of learning and litera
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THE OLD TESTAMENT
THE OLD TESTAMENT
We have spoken thus far as if the whole biblical-critical problem had been that of the New Testament. In reality the same impulses which had opened up that question to the minds of men had set them working upon the problem of the Old Testament as well. We have seen how the Christians made for themselves a canon of the New Testament. By the force of that conception of the canon, and through the belief that, almost in a literal sense, God was the author of the whole book, the obvious differences a
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THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINE
THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINE
When speaking of Baur's contribution to New Testament criticism, we alluded to his historical works. He was in a distinct sense a reformer of the method of the writing of church history. To us the notions of the historical and of that which is genetic are identical. Of course, naïve religious chronicles do not meet that test. A glance at the histories produced by the age of rationalism will show that these also fall short of it. The perception of the relativity of institutions like the papacy is
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HARNACK
HARNACK
Adolf Harnack was born in 1851 in Dorpat, in one of the Baltic provinces of Russia. His father, Theodosius Harnack, was professor of pastoral theology in the University of Dorpat. Harnack studied in Leipzig and began to teach there in 1874. He was called to the chair of church history in Giessen in 1879. In 1886 he removed to Marburg and in 1889 to Berlin. Harnack's earlier published work was almost entirely in the field of the study of the sources and materials of early church history. His firs
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THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
By the middle of the nineteenth century the empirical sciences had undergone vast expansion in the study of detail and in the discovery of principles. Men felt the necessity of some adequate discussion of the relation of these sciences one to another and of their unity. There was need of the organisation of the mass of knowledge, largely new and ever increasing, which the sciences furnished. It lay in the logic of the case that some of these attempts should advance the bold claim to deal with al
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POSITIVISM
POSITIVISM
The permanent influence of that phase of thought which called itself Positivism has not been great. But a school of thought which numbered among its adherents such men and women as John Stuart Mill, George Henry Lewes, George Eliot, Frederic Harrison, and Matthew Arnold, cannot be said to have been without significance. A book upon the translation of which Harriet Martinean worked with sustained enthusiasm cannot be dismissed as if it were merely a curiosity. Comte's work, Coura de Philosophie P
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NATURALISM AND AGNOSTICISM
NATURALISM AND AGNOSTICISM
We may take Spencer as representative of a group of men who, after the middle of the nineteenth century, laboured enthusiastically to set forth evolutionary and naturalistic theories of the universe. These theories had also, for the most part, the common trait that they professed agnosticism as to all that lay beyond the reach of the natural-scientific methods, in which the authors were adept. Both Ward and Boutroux accept Spencer as such a type. Agnosticism for obvious reasons could be no syste
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EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
In the progress of the thought of the generation, say, from 1870 to the present day, the conception of evolution has been much changed. The doctrine of evolution has itself been largely evolved within that period. The application of it has become familiar in fields of which there was at first no thought. The bearing of the acceptance of it upon religion has been seen to be quite different from that which was at first supposed. The advocacy of the doctrine was at first associated with the claims
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MIRACLES
MIRACLES
It must be evident that the total view of the universe which the acceptance of the doctrine of evolution implies, has had effect in the diminution of the acuteness of the question concerning miracles. It certainly gives to that question a new form. A philosophy which asserts the constant presence of God in nature and the whole life of the world, a criticism which has given us a truer notion of the documents which record the biblical miracles, the reverent sense of ignorance which our increasing
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THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
We said that the last generation had been characterised by an unexampled concentration of intellectual interest upon problems presented by the social sciences. With this has gone an unrivalled earnestness in the interpretation of religion as a social force. The great religious enthusiasm has been that of the application of Christianity to the social aspects of life. This effort has furnished most of the watchwords of religious teaching. It has laid vigorous, not to say violent, hands on religiou
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THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES: ACTION AND REACTION
THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES: ACTION AND REACTION
In those aspects of our subject with which we have thus far dealt, leadership has been largely with the Germans. Effort was indeed made in the chapter on the sciences to illustrate the progress of thought by reference to British writers. In this department the original and creative contribution of British authors was great. There were, however, also in the earlier portion of the nineteenth century movements of religious thought in Great Britain and America related to some of those which we have
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THE POETS
THE POETS
It may now sound like a contradiction if we assert that the years from 1780 to 1830 constitute the era of the noblest English poetry since the times of great Elizabeth. The social direction of the new theology of the present day, with its cry against every kind of injustice, with its claim of an equal opportunity for a happy life for every man—this was the forecast of Cowper, as it had been of Blake. To Blake all outward infallible authority of books or churches was iniquitous. He was at daggers
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COLERIDGE
COLERIDGE
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was born in 1772 at his father's vicarage, Ottery St. Mary's, Devonshire. He was the tenth child of his parents, weak in frame, always suffering much. He was a student at Christ's Hospital, London, where he was properly bullied, then at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he did not take his degree. For some happy years he lived in the Lake region and was the friend of Wordsworth and Southey. He studied in Göttingen, a thing almost unheard of in his time. The years 1798 to 18
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THE ORIEL SCHOOL
THE ORIEL SCHOOL
It has often happened in the history of the English universities that a given college has become, through its body of tutors and students, through its common-room talk and literary work, the centre, for the time, of a movement of thought which gives leadership to the college. In this manner it has been customary to speak of the group of men who, before the rise of the Oxford Movement, gathered at Oriel College, as the Oriel School. Newman and Keble were both Oriel tutors. The Oriel men were of d
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ERSKINE AND CAMPBELL
ERSKINE AND CAMPBELL
The period from 1820 to 1850 was one of religious and intellectual activity in Scotland as well. Tulloch depicts with a Scotsman's patriotism the movement which centres about the names of Erskine and Campbell. Pfleiderer also judges that their contribution was as significant as any made to dogmatic theology in Great Britain in the nineteenth century. They achieved the same reconstruction of the doctrine of salvation which had been effected by Kant and Schleiermacher. At their hands the doctrine
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MAURICE
MAURICE
Scottish books seem to have been but little read in England in that day. It was Maurice who first made the substance of Campbell's teaching known in England. Frederick Denison Maurice was the son of a Unitarian minister, educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, at a time when it was impossible for a Nonconformist to obtain a degree. He was ordained a priest of the Church of England in 1834, even suffering himself to be baptised again. He was chaplain of Lincoln's Inn and Professor of Theology in
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CHANNING
CHANNING
Allusion has been made to a revision of traditional theology which took place in America also, upon the same general lines which we have seen in Schleiermacher and in Campbell. The typical figure here, the protagonist of the movement, is William Ellery Channing. It may be doubted whether there has ever been a civilisation more completely controlled by its Church and ministers, or a culture more entirely dominated by theology, than were those of New England until the middle of the eighteenth cent
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BUSHNELL
BUSHNELL
A very different man was Horace Bushnell, born in the year of Channing's licensure, 1802. He was not bred under the influence of the strict Calvinism of his day. His father was an Arminian. Edwards had made Arminians detested in New England. His mother had been reared in the Episcopal Church. She was of Huguenot origin. When about seventeen, while tending a carding-machine, he wrote a paper in which he endeavoured to bring Calvinism into logical coherence and, in the interest of sound reason, to
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THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL
THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL
The Oxford Movement has been spoken of as a reaction against the so-called Oriel Movement, a conservative tendency over against an intellectualist and progressive one. In a measure the personal animosities within the Oxford circle may be accounted for in this way. The Tractarian Movement, however, which issued, on the one hand, in the going over of Newman to the Church of Rome and, on the other, in a great revival of Catholic principles within the Anglican Church itself, stands in a far larger s
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THE OXFORD MOVEMENT
THE OXFORD MOVEMENT
In so far as that complex of causes just alluded to made of the Oxford Movement or the Catholic revival a movement of life, ecclesiastical, social and political as well, its history falls outside the purpose of this book. We proposed to deal with the history of thought. Reactionary movements have frequently got on without much thought. They have left little deposit of their own in the realm of ideas. Their avowed principle has been that of recurrence to that which has already been thought, of fi
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NEWMAN
NEWMAN
John Henry Newman was born in 1801, the son of a London banker. His mother was of Huguenot descent. He came under Calvinistic influence. Through study especially, of Romaine On Faith he became the subject of an inward conversion, of which in 1864 he wrote: 'I am still more certain of it than that I have hands and feet.' Thomas Scott, the evangelical, moved him. Before he was sixteen he made a collection of Scripture texts in proof of the doctrine of the trinity. From Newton On the Prophecies he
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MODERNISM
MODERNISM
It was said that the Oxford Movement furnished the rationale of the reaction. Many causes, of course, combine to make the situation of the Roman Church and the status of religion in the Latin countries of the Continent the lamentable one that it is. That position is worst in those countries where the Roman Church has most nearly had free play. The alienation both of the intellectual and civil life from organised religion is grave. That the Roman Church occupies in England to-day a position more
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ROBERTSON
ROBERTSON
In no life are reflected more perfectly the spiritual conflicts of the fifth decade of the nineteenth century than in that of Frederick W. Robertson. No mind worked itself more triumphantly out of these difficulties. Descended from a family of Scottish soldiers, evangelical in piety, a student in Oxford in 1837, repelled by the Oxford Movement, he undertook his ministry under a morbid sense of responsibility. He reacted violently against his evangelicalism. He travelled abroad, read enormously,
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PHILLIPS BROOKS
PHILLIPS BROOKS
Something of the same sort may be said concerning Phillips Brooks. He inherited on his father's side the sober rationalism and the humane and secular interest of the earlier Unitarianism, on his mother's side the intensity of evangelical pietism with the Calvinistic form of thought. The conflict of these opposing tendencies in New England was at that time so great that Brooks's parents sought refuge with the low-church element in the Episcopal Church. Brooks's education at Harvard College, where
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THE BROAD CHURCH
THE BROAD CHURCH
We have used the phrase, the Broad Church party. Stanley had employed the adjective to describe the real character of the English Church, over against the antithesis of the Low Church and the High. The designation adhered to a group of which Stanley was himself a type. They were not bound together in a party. They had no ecclesiastical end in view. They were of a common spirit. It was not the spirit of evangelicalism. Still less was it that of the Tractarians. It was that which Robertson had man
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CARLYLE
CARLYLE
Carlyle has pictured for us his early home at Ecclefechan on the Border; his father, a stone mason of the highest character; his mother with her frugal, pious ways; the minister, from whom he learned Latin, 'the priestliest man I ever beheld in any ecclesiastical guise.' The picture of his mother never faded from his memory. Carlyle was destined for the Church. Such had been his mother's prayer. He took his arts course in Edinburgh. In the university, he says, 'there was much talk about progress
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EMERSON
EMERSON
Arnold said in one of his American addresses: 'Besides these voices—Newman, Carlyle, Goethe—there came to us in the Oxford of my youth a voice also from this side of the Atlantic, a clear and pure voice which, for my ear at any rate, brought a strain as new and moving and unforgetable as those others. Lowell has described the apparition of Emerson to your young generation here. He was your Newman, your man of soul and genius, speaking to your bodily ears, a present object for your heart and imag
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ARNOLD
ARNOLD
What shall we say of Matthew Arnold himself? Without doubt the twenty years by which Arnold was Newman's junior at Oxford made a great difference in the intellectual atmosphere of that place, and of the English world of letters, at the time when Arnold's mind was maturing. He was not too late to feel the spell of Newman. His mind was hardly one to appreciate the whole force of that spell. He was at Oxford too early for the full understanding of the limits within which alone the scientific concep
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MARTINEAU
MARTINEAU
As the chapter and the book draw to their close we can think of no man whose life more nearly spanned the century, or whose work touched more fruitfully almost every aspect of Christian thoughtfulness than did that of James Martineau. We can think of no man who gathered into himself more fully the significant theological tendencies of the age, or whose utterance entitles him to be listened to more reverently as seer and saint. He was born in 1805. He was bred as an engineer. He fulfilled for yea
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JAMES
JAMES
The greatest contribution of America to religious discussion in recent years is surely William James's Varieties of Religious Experience , 1902. The book is unreservedly acknowledged in Britain, and in Germany as well, to be the best which we yet have upon the psychology of religion. Not only so, it gives a new intimation as to what psychology of religion means. It blazes a path along which investigators are eagerly following. Boyce, in his Phi Beta Kappa address at Harvard in 1911, declared Jam
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CHAPTER I
CHAPTER I
WERNLE, PAUL. Einführung in das theologische Studium. Tübingen, 2. Aufl., 1911. DIE KULTUR DER GEGENWART. Th. I., Abth. iv. 1. Geschichte der Christlichen Religion , v. Wellhausen, Jülieber, Harnack u. A., 2. Aufl. Berlin, 1909. DIE KULTUR DER GEGENWART. Th. I., Abth. iv. 2. Systematische Christliche Religion , v. Troeltsch, Herrmann, Holtzmann u. A., 2. Aufl. Berlin, 1909. PFLEIDERER, OTTO. The Development of Theology in Germany since Kant, and its Progress in Great Britain since 1825. Transl.,
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CHAPTER II
CHAPTER II
WINDELBAND, W. Die Geschichte der neueren Philosophie in ihrem Zusammenhang mit der allgemeinen Kultur und den besouderen Wissenschaften. 2 Bde. Leipzig, 1899. HÖFFDING, HAROLD. Geschichte der neueren Philosophie. Uebersetzt v. Bendixen. 2 Bde. Leipzig, 1896. EUCKEN, RUDOLF. Die Lebensanschauungen der grossen Denker. 8. Anfl. Leipzig, 1909. Transl., The Problem of Human Life as viewed by the Great Thinkers , by W.S. HOUGH and W.R. BOYCE GIBSON. New York, 1910. PRINGLE-PATTISON, A. SETH. The Deve
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CHAPTER III
CHAPTER III
VON FRANK, H.R. Geschichte und Kritik der neueren Theologie insbesondere der systematischen seit Schleiermacher. Hrsg, v. Schaarschmidt. Eriangen, 1898. SCHWARZ, CARL. Zur Gesehichte der neuiten Theologie. Leipzig, 4. Aufl., 1869. KATTENBUSCH, FERDINAND. Von Schleiermacher zu Ritschl. Giessen, 1892. BROWN, WILLIAM ADAMS. The Essence of Christianity: a Study in the History of Definition. New York, 1902. DILTHEY, WILHELM. Leben Schleiermachers , 1. Bd. Berlin, 1870. GASS, WILHELM. Geschichte der P
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CHAPTER IV
CHAPTER IV
CARPENTER, J. ESTLIN. The Bible in the Nineteenth Century. London, 1903. GARDNER, Percy. A Historic View of the New Testament. London,1901. JÜLICHER, ADOLF. Einleitung in das Neue Testament. Freiliurg, 6. Aufl., 1906. Transl., Miss Janet Ward. 1904. MOORE, EDWARD CALDWELL. The New Testament in the Christian Church. New York, 1904. LIKTZMANN, HANS. Wie wurden die Bücher des neuen Testaments heilige Schrift? Tübingen, 1907. LOISY, A. L'Ecangile el I'Eglise. Paris, 2nd ed., 1903. Transl., London, 1
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CHAPTER V
CHAPTER V
MEHZ, JOHH. A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Vols. 1 and 2, Edinburgh, 1904 and 1903. WHITE, ANDREW D. The History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. 2 vols. New York, 1896. OTTO, RUDOLF. Naturalistisehe und religiöse Weltansicht. Tübingen, 2. Aufl., 1909. WARD, JAMES. Naturalism and Agnosticism. 2 vols. London, 1899. FLINT, ROBERT. Agnosticism. Edinburgh, 1903. TULLOCH, JOHN. Modern Theories in Philosophy and Religion. Edinburgh, 1884. MARTINEAU, JAM
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CHAPTER VI
CHAPTER VI
HUNT, JOHN. Religious Thought in England in the Nineteenth Century. London, 1896. TULLOCH, JOHN. Movements of Religious Thought in Britain during the Nineteenth Century. London, 1885. BENN, ALFRED WILLIAM. The History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Century. 2 vols. London, 1906. HUTTON, RICHARD H. Essays on some of the Modern Guides to English Thought in Matters of Faith. London, 1900. MELLONE, SIDNEY H. Leaders of Religious Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Edinburgh, 1902. BROOKE, S
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