In the year 1859 there occurred three events which, though not all comparable to one another, yet make the year one of such importance that we may take it as marking the beginning of the distinctively modern period of geographical science. These three events were, first, the deaths of Humboldt and Ritter, two great geographical pioneers who hewed tracks through the tangled jungle of unsystematised geographical facts, and second, the publication of the Origin of Species , by Charles Darwin, a boo

It is not necessary here to consider the various formal definitions of geography which have been proposed in the last few years. As is only natural with a developing subject, much discussion has taken place as to the exact limits of its field of action, and many definitions have been proposed with the object of setting forth these limits as clearly as possible. But it is sufficient for our purpose to note that geography deals with the surface-relief of the earth, and with the influence which tha

In the last chapter we have spoken of the moulding of the surface of the earth by means of running water and the agents summed up in the term “weathering.” The process is sometimes called “normal erosion,” to distinguish it from that other form of surface moulding in which ice and frost play a prominent part. At the present time ice, in the form of ice-sheets or glaciers, is confined to relatively small areas of the globe, so that we are justified in regarding its action as exceptional when comp

To the superficial observer those daily variations in the atmospheric conditions in any one locality which we sum up under the term weather, may appear to occur without order or regularity, but detailed quantitive study soon shows that even British weather displays constancy in its irregularity. The existence of such basal constancy, indeed, lies at the root of all intelligent utilisation of the soil. The irresponsible amateur gardener may lightheartedly assume that a particular spring will be “

We have now taken a general survey of the earth’s surface, have noted its mountain heights and its ocean depths, watched the formation of hills and valleys which is due to the joint action of atmospheric agents, running water and ice, and considered briefly some of the points of interest about climate. We next pass to that most characteristic feature of the surface, its clothing of plants. Except where the surface of the ground has been artificially sterilised by man, or is rendered unproductive

In the last chapter we looked at a few of the interesting generalisations which have emerged of late years from the study of plant distribution. An enormous amount of detailed investigation had been done before these generalisations were arrived at, and though still much remains to be done, yet the broad lines of a science of plant distribution may now be said to be established. The scientific study of animal distribution has not yet reached a corresponding stage of advancement, partly no doubt

Before proceeding to discuss the chief races of men in Europe, something must be said of its cultivated plants and animals. Originally, doubtless, the various human groups which have mingled in Europe had each their own type of culture, based upon the possession and cultivation of particular animals and plants. The lapse of time has caused so complete an intermixture that it is only possible to a very small extent to disentangle the different elements which have gone to the making of present day

We have spoken in the previous chapter of the three chief races of Europe, but before proceeding to discuss them in detail it is necessary to clear the ground of certain misconceptions and difficulties. The first of these is the notion that nationality has anything to do with race, in the anthropological sense. There is much to be said for the view that the European civilisations owe their development largely to the mingling of races which has occurred within the area; it is at least certain tha

The distribution of minerals over the surface of the earth is much less obvious phenomenon than that of plants and animals, but it has always been of great importance in determining the distribution of man and his settlements. Except in the most primitive communities man must have tools and implements; probably never since he became man has he been without weapons. The first sign of emergence from the rudest barbarism is the use of metals, instead of stone or bone, to construct these tools and w

Most of the subjects which have been treated in this book fall under the heading of physical geography, and therefore we may begin these notes by recommending two large works of reference on this subject. Salisbury’s Physiography (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1907, $3.50 net) is the most comprehensive work on the subject in English. In French there is an admirable book by E. de Martonne, Traité de Géographie Physique (Paris: Armand Colin, 1909, price 22 fr.), to be especially recommended