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I. The Political Situation in Europe at Opening of the 16th Century. 1. The National States: England, France, Spain and Portugal. 2. The Holy Roman Empire. 3. The city states of Italy. 4. Other European States. Readings: Hayes, A Political and Social History of Modern Europe , Vol. I, 3-25. II. Scientific and intellectual progress. 1. Medieval travels; the crusades. 2. The Renaissance. 3. Invention of the compass and improvement of the astrolabe. 4. Improvement and increase of maps. Readings: Ch