Wars & Treaties, 1815-1914 - free ebook by Arthur Ponsonby Ponsonby

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Wars & Treaties, 1815-1914

Arthur Ponsonby Ponsonby

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WARS AND TREATIES1815 to 1914

WARS AND TREATIES1815 to 1914

DEMOCRACY AND DIPLOMACY (3s. 6d. net) BY ARTHUR PONSONBY “It is the completest statement of the case for the democratic control of foreign affairs which has been published, and contains a mass of facts whose value cannot be exaggerated. We owe Mr. Ponsonby a great debt for this work.”— Labour Leader. “... Mr. Ponsonby’s main contention is one which may and should receive the hearty assent of many who disagree with him in detail. He strongly urges the necessity in dealing with foreign affairs of

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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

A growing number of people are devoting their attention to a closer study of foreign affairs. Many of them may not have the opportunity to read the larger volumes of histories; and, indeed, even if they had, they would find their choice of books very much restricted when they came to the more recent period of European and world history, although in the last year or so the gap has to some extent been filled up by several interesting studies of international politics in the nineteenth century. Som

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

There were wholesale massacres on both sides, notably the destruction by the Turks of the inhabitants of Chios. The Turks were unable to suppress the revolt. The Greeks under Kolokotrones exhausted the Turkish army, and assistance was sought by the Sultan from Mehemet Ali, of Egypt, who in 1823 conquered Crete and defeated the Greeks at Psara. The Egyptians and Turks entered Morea. Missolonghi fell after a year’s siege, and the garrison in the Acropolis at Athens surrendered in June 1827. By a t

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Adrianople , September 1829 (see also p. 17 ) Greece became autonomous under the supreme sovereignty of the Sultan. Shortly afterwards the Powers agreed that Greece should be established as an absolutely independent kingdom, but without Crete or Samos, and with a frontier line drawn from the mouth of the River Achelous to a spot near Thermopylæ. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg accepted the crown, but renounced it after a few months. Prince Otho of Bavaria accepted it in February 1

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Greece was confined within far too narrow limits, with which she could not rest contented. The enmity between Russia and Turkey was in no way mitigated, and Russian ambitions remained unsatisfied. Russia. Turkey. By the Treaty of London, July 1827, Great Britain, Russia, and France undertook to put an end to the conflict in the East, which had arisen out of the Greek struggle for independence. After the victory of Navarino, Canning died and Great Britain was inactive. By the Treaty of Akerman ,

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Russians occupied the Roumanian principalities and crossed the Danube. At first the Turks had considerable successes in the Dobrudja, and the Russians, who suffered enormous losses, were only able to capture Varna. Reserves were brought up during the winter. After fierce resistance the Turks were routed near Shumla. In July 1829 the Russians crossed the Balkans, the fleet co-operated in the Black Sea, and the army began to march on Constantinople. In Asia, Kars and Erzeroum having fallen int

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Adrianople , September 14, 1829, Russian ascendancy in the principalities of the Danube was permanently assured, and the whole of the Caucasus was converted into Russian territory. The Straits were declared free and open to merchant ships of all Powers. The Turkish Government gave its adhesion to the Treaty of London regulating the Greek frontier....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Russia’s hold over Turkey was greatly strengthened, but the establishment of an absolutely independent kingdom in Greece was finally secured. Holland. Belgium, France, Great Britain. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was set up by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, but from the first there was discord between the two states of the kingdom. King William was a Dutchman and a Protestant. Holland, although the smaller of the two states, had a permanent majority in the Chamber. Public offices and appointme

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

On August 9, 1831, the Belgians were routed in an encounter with the Dutch, but on the intervention of the French army King William withdrew. The Conference in London drew up a treaty, but King William refused to come to terms and retained possession of Antwerp. In November a combined British and French fleet sailed for the coast of Holland, and a French army laid siege to Antwerp. The Dutch garrison capitulated on December 23, 1831, and the town was handed over to the Belgians and the French tr

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Political Result:

Political Result:

The Conference throughout had endeavoured to come to an agreement; Austria, Prussia, and Russia sympathized with Holland; but eventually the final Treaty of London was signed on April 19, 1839. Luxemburg was divided, and also the district of Maestricht. The Scheldt was declared open to the commerce of both countries. The national debt was divided, and the five Powers guaranteed the independence and neutrality of Belgium....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

As independent states the two countries lived side by side amicably. The neutrality of Belgium was reaffirmed in 1870 on the outbreak of the Franco-German War. Leopold was succeeded in 1865 by his son Leopold II, under whose sovereignty the Congo Free State was placed in 1885. King Albert succeeded his uncle in 1909. Followers of Don Miguel. Portuguese Constitutionalists. Spaniards. Carlists. and for a period France and Great Britain. Don Miguel, the head of the reactionary party, was betrothed

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Don Pedro captured Oporto, but was besieged there for nearly a year. With assistance from outside he overcame the resistance of the enemy and entered Lisbon in July, 1833. A quadruple treaty was signed at London in April 1834, by which Spain and Portugal, assisted by Great Britain and France, engaged to drive both Miguel and Carlos from the Peninsula. A Spanish army marched against Miguel and the British fleet arrived. Miguel renounced the crown, and quitted the Peninsula. Don Carlos was conduct

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Political Result:

Political Result:

Absolutism was crushed and a more constitutional form of government was established. But the throne of Spain was the subject of further disputes in the future....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This prolonged and barbaric conflict disgraced the Spanish nation. The three Eastern Powers favoured the cause of Don Carlos and reaction. It was the fear of possibly provoking a general war that made France refuse to intervene. Russia. Poland. By the three partitions of 1772, 1793, and 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an independent state, and Polish territory was divided up between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. But in 1814 the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was established as a separate kingdom subject t

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The losses sustained by the Russian armies were considerable, but the Poles had to fall back on Warsaw and were defeated at Ostrolenka. Russian reinforcements came up, and on September 8, 1831, the Russian army made its entrance into Warsaw, and the revolt was suppressed....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

The Constitution of Poland was abolished: it ceased to be a separate kingdom and became a province of the Russian Empire. The Polish leaders were exiled....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The Poles might have won a gradual development of constitutional liberty without a break with the powerful sovereignty of the Czar; the revolt no doubt was rash and unwise. But, on the other hand, the governments of Western Europe, including Great Britain, who, by the Treaty of Vienna, guaranteed the autonomy of Poland, never lifted a hand on behalf of Polish independence, and acquiesced in its complete absorption by Russia. Turkey and later Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Great Britain. Egypt. Th

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Syria and Asia Minor were conquered by Ibrahim. Russia offered aid, but on the intervention of France the Sultan was persuaded to make peace, making over to Mehemet Ali Syria and the province of Adena. At the same time, in July 1833, a treaty of defensive alliance was signed at Unkiar Skelessi between Russia and Turkey, by which Russia obtained very nearly complete ascendancy at Constantinople. Great Britain desired to maintain the Sultan’s power: France befriended Mehemet Ali: both were agreed

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the final settlement, to which France also agreed, Mehemet Ali abandoned all claim to provinces outside Egypt, undertook to restore the Turkish fleet, and was assured the hereditary possession of Egypt. The Straits were closed to the warships of all nations. This prevented Russia from becoming a Mediterranean Power....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Turkey now became dependent on the protection of Europe. Hopes of internal reform, however, never fructified. The conflicting ambitions of European Powers with regard to the continually shrinking dominions of the Sultan became henceforth an increasing source of friction. Great Britain and Indian Troops. Afghanistan. The close proximity of Afghanistan to India necessitated the British Government watching jealously the affairs of that country, and preparing for the possibility of its being brought

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

A British Indian force advanced in March 1838, and entered Kandahar. Shah Shuja was crowned. Dost Mahommed withdrew, and Kabul was entered. The war was brought to an end, but in November 1841 a revolt broke out in Kabul and there were serious massacres. The British garrison in withdrawing was overwhelmed between Kabul and Jalalabad. Reinforcements, in 1842, forced the Kyber Pass, relieved Jalalabad and occupied Kabul. The army finally evacuated Afghanistan in December 1842....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

A ruler imposed on a free people by foreign arms is always unpopular. The Afghans considered that Shah Shuja’s rule under the protection of British troops might be fatal to their national independence....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This war has been described as a rash, ill-planned, and hazardous enterprise, and was the immediate cause of further trouble. (See p. 58 .) Great Britain. China. The Chinese still held the doctrine that no political relations or dealings should be held with any foreign country. The British Government under Palmerston decided to place trade relations with China on a more satisfactory basis, confusion and annoyance having arisen owing to the expiry of the East India Company’s charter. They also re

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year Amoy. Ningpo fell, and in 1842 Chapu, Woosung, and Shanghai shared the same fate. Before Nanking could be captured the Chinese Government proposed terms of peace....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Nanking , August 21, 1842, Hong-kong was formally ceded to the British Crown; Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo, and Shanghai were declared open to foreign trade. A war indemnity of twelve million dollars was paid to Great Britain, and subsequent treaties were signed for the regulation of trade....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This was the beginning of the exploitation of China by the Western Powers. It led to further wars, and the opium question continued to agitate public opinion in Great Britain and cause disputes with China for the rest of the century, until the opium trade was finally abolished in 1913. The United States of America. Mexico. Texas seceded from Mexico in 1836. The independence of Texas was recognized by the United States, but the proposal that the new state should be admitted into the Union was dec

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Americans under Taylor invaded Mexico, won battles at Palo Alto and Resaca and captured Monterey. In 1847 there were more victories, the Mexicans under Santa Anna being everywhere defeated. The Americans entered Mexico City on September 14th. After further fighting peace was proclaimed at Washington in July 1848....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo , February 2, 1848, Mexico ceded the whole of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California. The United States surrendered their other conquests....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

So far as Texas was concerned, the political opinion in the United States was divided, and that division was to become more serious as time went on. On the other hand, Mexico was a troublesome neighbour, and has continued ever since to be the cause of disturbance and dispute. Hungary. Austria, the Southern Slavs and Russia. The fall of Metternich, who had been the champion of despotism and reaction throughout Europe, and the revolutionary spirit which ran through Europe in 1848, created great un

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Austrians occupied Pesth on January 5, 1849; the Hungarians withdrew to Debreczin and were defeated at Kapolona on February 26th. In April the Magyar troops recovered and the Austrians were driven out of Hungary. On April 19th Hungary was proclaimed an independent state. Russia intervened to assist Austria, and marched an army across Galicia. The Hungarians were now confronted with a force three times the size of their own, and the main army capitulated at Vilagos on August 13, 1849....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

Hungary was completely crushed and subjected to savage punishment by its conquerors. Every vestige of its old constitutional rights was extinguished....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

In 1860 the old Constitution was restored. In 1867 the Emperor Francis Joseph was crowned King of Hungary. A responsible ministry was appointed, and a financial agreement (Ausgleich) made between Austria and Hungary. Nationality asserted itself in spite of all attempts at repression. But the Hungarians, in their turn, held the Slav and Roumanian populations within their borders with an iron grasp and failed to gain their affection. The States of Italy. Austria. France. Italy, after the fall of N

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Course of the Wars:

Course of the Wars:

The revolt in the Papal States in 1831 was suppressed by Austrian intervention. France also intervened, and the Austrian troops withdrew. In 1848 Sardinian troops advanced against Austria, but after much fighting round Verona were defeated at Santa Lucia. Civil war broke out between Naples and Sicily. Sardinia and Piedmont, under Victor Emmanuel and his Minister, Cavour, now took the lead. France became their ally in 1859. In spite of attempts at mediation by Great Britain, Austria presented an

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Political Result:

Political Result:

All Italy became united under one monarch with its capital at Rome. Victor Emmanuel was succeeded in 1878 by Humbert, the father of King Victor Emmanuel III....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The rivalry between Austria and Italy did not die down, and there were still certain territories— Italia irredenta (such as Trentino)—which remained in Austrian hands. Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia. Russia. From 1830 onwards there was a growing estrangement between Great Britain and Russia. The Czar Nicholas believed that the dominion of the Turk in Europe was nearing its end, and cherished the ambition that Russia should acquire provinces of the Ottoman dominions. On the other hand

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Crimea was invaded, and fighting continued there for two years. The Austrian attempt at mediation in May 1855, failed. The Russians were defeated at Alma and Inkerman, and Sevastopol, after a long siege, fell on September 9, 1855. The Russians captured Kars in November....

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Political Results:

Political Results:

By the Treaty of Paris , March 30, 1856, the Black Sea was neutralized. An engagement was made by all the Powers to respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire: the Sultan promised to give equality of treatment to his Christian subjects. The Danubian provinces were granted independence under the sovereignty of the Sultan....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This treaty was absolutely barren. The Sultan’s promise was never acted on: the neutrality of the Black Sea was maintained only till 1870: and when the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was assailed in later years none of the signatory Powers intervened in its defence. But at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the Powers partitioned parts of the Ottoman Empire. So far from settling any disputes this war caused dissensions which led to other wars. Great Britain. Native Indians. The East India Company h

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Native troops mutinied at Mirat, and proceeded to Delhi, Cawnpore, and Lucknow. Many British men and women were murdered. A British force in June and July 1857 marched on Delhi. Engagements were fought, in which there were heavy losses. Disease and cholera also carried off many victims. After a great struggle Lahore was captured in September, and Agra was relieved, also Cawnpore, where, under Nana Sahib, the most hideous massacres and cruelty had taken place. At Lucknow a heroic resistance was m

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Queen’s proclamation of November 1858 the government of India was taken over by the British Government. The Queen declared that all her Indian subjects should be protected in the exercise of their religious observances. Excessive measures of repression which had been resorted to were stopped....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Queen Victoria was styled Empress of India at the instance of Disraeli in 1876. Various reforms have been instituted in Indian administration tentatively allowing Indians some share in the government of the country. But the problem of British rule in India is not one which is capable of final solution. Great Britain, France. China. The increasing commercial ambitions of Western Powers in the East led Great Britain and France to insist on the establishment of fair and equitable terms of trade. Th

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Canton was taken by the British in December 1857. The Taku Forts fell in May 1858 and Tientsin was occupied. Negotiations were attempted but failed. An allied force of British and French landed in 1860, marched on Peking, and the Chinese yielded....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the treaty of October 24, 1860, the Chinese paid an indemnity of eight million taels. The right of Europeans to travel in the interior was granted, and freedom guaranteed to the preaching of Christianity. By the customs tariff agreed upon the import of opium was legalized. In the course of 1861 British, French, and Russian legations were permanently established at Peking, and in the following years the same right was conceded to other European nations. By treaties with Russia in the same year

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This was the opening of the door into China, and from henceforth the Western Powers began to compete for commercial and territorial prizes in the Chinese Empire. The Northern states of North America. The Southern states of North America. The cultivation of cotton progressed under very different conditions in the North and South. In the North the white man had to work vigorously to overcome the disadvantages of the soil. In the South the negro labourer could be used with profit to his owner, and

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The North was defeated at Bull Run in July 1861, but captured forts Henry and Donelson in 1862, and gained a victory at Shiloh. At Richmond, and later at Fredericksburg, the North was defeated. Lincoln issued his proclamation of Emancipation on January 1, 1863. The South, under Lee, were defeated in the greatest battle of the war at Gettysburg, on July 4th. In 1864 there were further victories for the North under Grant at Spottsylvania and Coldharbour; and Atlanta and Savanah were captured. In 1

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Political Result:

Political Result:

The Union was restored and slavery abolished. Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, and his wise counsel was lost therefore for the difficult work of reconstruction which followed the war....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Great Britain declared neutrality at the outset, and thereby implicitly, though not explicitly, recognized the Southern Confederacy as a belligerent Power. There was much sympathy with the South among the governing class, but the people were on the side of the North. The Trent affair brought Great Britain and America very near to war. (See Treaty of Washington , p. 94.) France. Mexican Republicans. From 1789, the date of the first conspiracy against Spain, down to 1857, when a Constitution was p

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The French force was checked in May 1862, and further reinforcements were sent out. They advanced again in February 1863, and entered Mexico City in June. A Provisional Government was established, and the crown was offered to Maximilian of Austria, who accepted it and reached Mexico City in June 1864. Juarez, the republican leader, was driven into the extreme north of the country. But his resistance was by no means overcome. Napoleon III bound himself to keep a force in Mexico for the protection

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Political Result:

Political Result:

Juarez, as President of Mexico, was succeeded by Diaz in 1877; and order was maintained for a generation....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This foolish enterprise damaged the reputation of Napoleon III. He was regarded as a political adventurer, and became increasingly unpopular in his own country. Brazil, Uruguay, Argentine Republic. Paraguay. Brazil was part of the Portuguese possessions until 1822, when it declared its independence. The Emperors Pedro I and II had frequent trouble not only with the republican movement in Brazil itself, but with the neighbouring states, with whom they were constantly at war. In 1855 Pedro II sent

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Owing to the strong natural position of Paraguay, and the obstinacy of Lopez, the war was drawn out with constant fighting and great sacrifice of life in addition to vast expenditure, until 1870, when it was terminated by the capture and death of Lopez....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

External troubles ceased, but the republican movement gained in strength until 1889, when Pedro was deposed and a republic declared in Brazil....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The slaughter in this war was so terrific that the population of Paraguay was reduced from 1,337,439 to 221,079. This is only one example of the very frequent disturbances, both internal and external, in the South American continent during the course of the century. Denmark. Prussia and Austria. The strong revival of nationalism in Germany after the Napoleonic Wars spread to the German inhabitants of the Duchies of Schleswig Holstein, who desired in 1848 to be incorporated as a single constituti

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The allied troops broke through the frontier fortifications and occupied the greater part of the Danish mainland. The Danes were overthrown in the island of Alsen, and the German flag carried to the northern extremity of Denmark. A conference was opened in London, April 1864, but the negotiations broke down and the war continued....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

Eventually, by the Treaty of Vienna , October 30, 1864, the King of Denmark ceded the rights in the whole of Schleswig Holstein to the Sovereigns of Austria and Prussia jointly....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This was more a diplomatic war than a military war. The conflict was between retention and annexation, and little regard was paid on any side to the desires of the inhabitants of the disputed territory. Although by the Treaty of London of 1852 the Powers, including Great Britain, had acknowledged as permanent the principle of the integrity of the Danish Monarchy no steps were taken by them to maintain that principle. The settlement did nothing to prevent the outbreak of war between Prussia and A

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Hanover and Hesse Cassel were conquered by Prussia, the Austrians were defeated at Königgrätz, July 3, 1866, and the Prussians pushed forward in sight of Vienna. The Austrians defeated the Italians on land at Custozza, and by sea at Lissa....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

Napoleon III offered mediation, which was accepted. The Treaty of Prague , August 23, 1866. Prussia annexed Hanover, Nassau, Hesse Cassel, and Frankfort: Germany north of the Main together with Saxony was included in a Federation under Prussia: the Southern states were left independent. Prussian sovereignty over Schleswig Holstein was recognized. Austria withdrew completely from German affairs....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Napoleon III had attempted, by dividing Germany in two, to put an obstacle in the way of German unity. His clumsy diplomacy was greatly disapproved of in France. By preventing a final settlement he made the recurrence of war inevitable. Great Britain. Abyssinia. From 1855 Abyssinia came under the powerful rule of the Emperor Theodore. He subdued the neighbouring kingdoms of Tigré and Shoa, and took Menelek, son of the ruler of Tigré, to be trained in his service. He ravaged the surrounding count

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

A British force under Sir Robert Napier landed in January 1868, a march of three hundred miles was undertaken through the mountainous districts, and, after a fierce engagement, Magdala was stormed and taken on April 13, 1868. The Emperor committed suicide, and his son was taken to England, where he died. The British troops left the country in May 1868....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

The ruler of Tigré succeeded Theodore under the title of King John, and on his death, in 1889, Menelek became Emperor....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

After this the Italians came on to the scene with ambitions in this part of Africa (see p. 74 ), but Abyssinia remained an independent kingdom. In the various expeditions against the Mullah in Somaliland (1902–4) the Abyssinians co-operated with Great Britain. France. Prussia and ten other German States. For some years previously there had been increasing friction between France and Prussia, owing chiefly to Louis Napoleon’s apprehensions as to the possibility of closer union between Prussia and

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

In the war, which lasted from July 1870 to February 1871, the ill-organized and badly led French troops could make no stand against the well-prepared armies of Germany. The French were defeated at Wörth, August 6th; Metz, August 7th; Marsla Tour, August 17th; Gravelotte, August 18th. Paris was besieged: Louis Napoleon capitulated at Sedan, September 2nd; Strasburg fell, September 28th; Bazaine capitulated at Metz, October 27th; and the Germans entered Paris on January 28, 1871....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Frankfort , May 10, 1871, Alsace and half Lorraine (with Metz) were ceded to Germany, and an indemnity of 200 millions was exacted from France. The King of Prussia was proclaimed at Versailles German Emperor. France was declared a republic, and Napoleon eventually retired into exile in England....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The dictation of terms and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine entirely prevented friendly relations from being established between the two countries in the succeeding years. France, by getting rid of the corrupt and incompetent government of Napoleon III, began to recuperate from this time onward. Germany, having reached the ideal of unity, proceeded gradually to join in the competition for commercial expansion and Imperial aggrandizement. Great Britain. The Ashantis. The Ashantis, a very fierce

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Owing to difficulties of climate it was necessary that the whole campaign should be rapidly carried out. The Ashantis were defeated at all points. Kumasi was reached and King Kofi surrendered. The European troops suffered severely from fever but the objects were successfully accomplished. Wolseley sailed from England on September 12, 1873, and returned to Portsmouth on March 21, 1874....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

The King renounced his claim to supremacy over any part of the former Dutch protectorate, paid an indemnity in gold, and agreed to prohibit human sacrifices. Further trouble arose, however, after the death of the King, his successors disregarding the treaty. In 1895 an expedition was sent out under Colonel Sir F. Scott. Kumasi was occupied and King Prempeh deported. Still the Ashanti tribes refused to submit, and continued in rebellion. The Governor of the Gold Coast and a small force were surro

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Imperial responsibilities entail the protection of friendly tribes against hostile attack in the outlying parts of the Empire. Punitive expeditions become necessary and annexation is found to be the best method of securing law and order. Russia. Turkey. The persecution and oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire led to a revolt in Herzegovina in 1875. Andrassy, on behalf of Austria, presented a Note to the Turkish Government demanding reforms, and this was followed by the Berlin Memorandu

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Russian army crossed the Danube. Plevna fell in December 1877. The Russians entered Adrianople, January 1878. The advance of the Russian army towards Gallipoli was followed by the dispatch of the British fleet to Constantinople and brought Russia and Great Britain within a hair’s-breadth of war. This, however, was avoided and peace negotiations began....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

Treaty of San Stefano , March 3, 1878. The independence of Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania was recognized. Bulgaria was made an autonomous principality with frontiers including the greater part of European Turkey; the Dobrudja and certain districts in Asia Minor were ceded to Russia. Great Britain objected strongly to this treaty, and proposed a Congress at Berlin. While the chances of the Congress hung in the balance, Great Britain made warlike preparations, but the Congress was finally agreed

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This was a patched-up peace. It settled none of the problems in the Balkans, which continued to be the danger zone in Europe for the rest of the century. Great Britain and Indian Troops. Afghanistan. In 1868 the expanding power of Russia in Asia resulted in Bokhara becoming a Russian dependency. In 1873 Russia conquered Khiva. Shere Ali, now ruler of Afghanistan, became alarmed, but failing to come to an understanding with the British Government, he began to make overtures to Russia. In 1877 an

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Two British forces marched into the interior of Afghanistan, and occupied important positions. Shere Ali fled from his capital, and died in February 1879. By the Treaty of Gandamuk , May 1879, Yakub Khan was recognized as Amir, and he agreed that a British envoy should reside at his Court. In September 1879, the envoy, his staff, and his escort were massacred. A fresh expedition was sent under Sir F. Roberts, who entered Kabul. In 1880, Abdur Rahman, nephew of Shere Ali, returned from exile in R

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Political Result:

Political Result:

The frontiers of Afghanistan were delimited in agreement with Russia. Abdur Rahman’s rulership over Afghanistan was established. He extended and consolidated his dominion over the whole country, and was peacefully succeeded by his son Habibullah in 1901....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

By the Anglo-Russia Convention of 1907, Great Britain engaged not to alter the political status of Afghanistan, and Russia recognized it as outside her sphere of influence. Great Britain. The Zulus. The warlike and threatening attitude of the Zulus under Cetywayo constituted a perpetual menace to the safety of the British possessions in South Africa. The policy of Sir Bartle Frere, Governor of the Cape and High Commissioner, was the eventual Federation of all South African states under British r

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Frere’s application for reinforcements was refused by the British Government. But after a British defeat at Isandhlwana, January 22, 1879, which was only prevented from being a disaster by the gallant defence of Rorke’s Drift, Sir Garnet Wolseley was sent out with more troops. The Zulus were defeated at Ulundi, July 5th, and Cetywayo was taken prisoner....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

Zululand was divided into thirteen districts, each with a separate chief, and was placed under a British Resident. It was finally annexed in 1887....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This war is only an episode in the extension and consolidation of the British Empire in South Africa. But it is an instance of the grave responsibilities which are involved in Imperial expansion. In the course of the war the Prince Imperial, only son of Napoleon III, was killed, and with him died the last hopes of a restoration of the Napoleonic dynasty in France. Chile. Peru. Bolivia. After the blockade and bombardment of their ports by a Spanish squadron in 1865, on account of their sympathy w

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Chileans occupied every port on the Bolivian coast, and engaged the Peruvian fleet. The Huascar , a Peruvian ironclad, after other ships had been destroyed, did great damage under four successive commanders, but after severe fighting was forced to surrender off Angamos, and the Peruvian navy ceased to exist. After several engagements on land the Chileans succeeded in taking possession of the Bolivian seaboard and the Peruvian province of Tarapaca. Fighting continued in 1880 when, in spite of

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Political Result:

Political Result:

The Treaty of Peace was not ratified till April 1884. Peru ceded to Chile the province of Tarapaca. The provinces of Tacna and Arica were placed under Chilean authority for ten years, after which they were to decide their own future government. Chile, however, eventually evaded compliance with this agreement and retained forcible possession of the provinces. Chile retained possession of the Bolivian seaboard, thus cutting off Bolivia from access to the Pacific....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The aggressive attitude of Chile was a cause of complaint with the neighbouring states, and nearly led on more than one occasion to further conflict. By a Treaty signed in 1905, however, Bolivia at last ceded all claims to a seaport and strip of coast. Chile, except for a civil war in 1891, is distinguished among the South American States by its freedom from revolution and serious political unrest. France. The Arabs of Tunis. Tunis under the government of the Beys formed part of the Ottoman Empi

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

A French force marched on the capital. The conquest of the country was not effected without serious resistance, specially at Sjax, but finally the whole country was brought completely under French jurisdiction, and the Bey was compelled to accept a French protectorate....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Bardo , May 12, 1881, and a further Treaty of La Marsa , June 8, 1883, the French protectorate was established. Italy did not recognize the full consequences of the French protectorate till 1896. Protests by Turkey were ignored by France, and in 1892 the Ottoman Government was prepared to delimit the Tunis-Tripoli frontier. But there were various frontier incidents, and Turkey maintained the claim that the Tunisians were Ottoman subjects....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The occupation of Tunis led to an estrangement between France and Italy. Great Britain. Egypt. Since 1840, while Egypt had been virtually independent, Great Britain had been regarded as the special champion of Turkish suzerainty; France as the protector of the Viceroys of Egypt. The construction of the Suez Canal, chiefly engineered by France and Great Britain, made Egypt of new importance, as the direct route to India now lay through the Red Sea. An Anglo-French financial control was establishe

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The bombardment of Alexandria took place on July 11, 1882, and the Egyptian troops set fire to the town. The Sultan was willing to enter into a military convention with Great Britain, but before it was signed the Egyptians were defeated at Tel-el Kebir by the British under Sir Garnet Wolseley, on September 13, 1882, and Arabi surrendered....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

Arabi and other Pashas were banished to Ceylon. The military occupation of Egypt by Great Britain, in spite of declarations to the effect that the troops would shortly be withdrawn, and in spite of protests from France, became permanent....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Till the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 France adopted a more or less hostile attitude with regard to Egypt. Many administrative and financial reforms were introduced by Sir Evelyn Baring, afterwards Lord Cromer. The government was practically taken out of the hands of the Egyptians, and from time to time there was trouble with a nationalist movement. France. China. France, after 1870, turned its attention more and more to colonial expansion in Africa, and also in Asia, where for some time effor

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The French fleet destroyed the arsenal of Foochow, took possession of Formosa, Kelung, and the Pescadores Islands, and blockaded Southern China. A French brigade was put to flight near Langsen. Incorrect information as to the extent of the reverse caused the overthrow of Jules Ferry’s ministry. But the victories and blockade of the French fleet induced China to accept peace....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Tientsin , June 9, 1885, China recognized the French protectorate in Tonkin and Annam, and promised to open the southern provinces to French traders. By treaties with Siam in 1893, and Great Britain in 1892–1896, Cambodia came also under French protection, and the Empire in Indo-China was consolidated....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

France definitely joined in the competition for Imperial expansion. Great Britain. Burma. The expansion of the British Empire in India involved the subjection of neighbouring states. In addition to this there was fear of the rivalry of France in Burma. (1) The conquest of Assam, which was under British protection, by the King of Ava in 1823, and the attack by him on a British fort at Shapur, led to the declaration of war against Burma. (2) The insults offered to the British flag at Rangoon by th

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Occasions:

Occasions:

(3) King Thibaw’s despotic rule and his design to enter into an agreement with France, led to the last Ultimatum in 1885....

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Course of the Wars:

Course of the Wars:

(I) A British force was defeated at Ramu, and the first two attempts to reach Ava failed. Martaban and Tennasserin were taken by the British, and the Burmese were expelled from Rangoon in December 1824. Prome was reached in April 1825. Myede was entered in December. In 1826 Sir Archibald Campbell pushed on to Yandabu, forty-five miles from Ava. By the treaty of peace February 24, 1826, the British gained the provinces of Assam, Arakan, and the coast of Tenasserim. (II) In April, 1852, as the Kin

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the proclamation of January 1, 1886, the whole of Burma was annexed, and Thibaw was deported to India....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The conquest of Burma was affected, not so much because of the misrule of the Kings of Ava as from a motive of Imperial expansion and the desire to forestall the designs of France. Bulgaria. Serbia. The Treaty of Berlin of 1878 left abundant material for future conflict in European Turkey. Bulgaria was confined to the north of the Balkan mountains, and Eastern Roumelia was still under the Sultan. Prince Alexander of Battenberg, the ruler of Bulgaria, in September 1885, marched south and occupied

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Bulgarians gained a decisive victory at Slivnitsa on November 16, 1885, and occupied Pirot, and the road to Belgrade lay open before them. But Austria intervened on behalf of Serbia, and after fourteen days’ fighting an armistice was signed....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Buckarest , March 3, 1886, the status quo was restored; Bulgaria gained nothing, but established her right to Eastern Roumelia. Owing to Russian intrigue Alexander was forced to abdicate and was succeeded by Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg as Prince of Bulgaria....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Bulgaria became gradually the most advanced and formidable state in the Balkans. In 1908, at the time of the revolutionary crisis in Turkey and the annexation of Bosnia and Herzogovina by Austria, Ferdinand declared himself Czar of a completely independent Bulgaria. Milan abdicated in 1889, and his son Alexander became King of Serbia. He and his wife were murdered in 1903 and Peter Karageorgevich accepted the crown. Japan. China and Korea. Japan adopting Western ideas developed into a powerful s

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

By land and sea the Japanese, who had been trained by European officers, were easily victorious. Asan was occupied, a victory was gained off the Yalu River, and the Japanese marched on Yingkow. Port Arthur, on the Liao-Tung peninsula, was captured, finally Wei-hai-Wei fell, and Li Hung Chang, the Chinese Minister, sued for peace....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Shimonoseki , China ceded to Japan the Liao Tung peninsula, the island of Formosa and the Pescadores Islands, and the indemnity was fixed at 200 million taels. But Russia, France, and Germany intervened, and ordered Japan to surrender the Liao Tung Peninsula on the ground that Port Arthur threatened the independence of Peking. But the insincerity of the intervention of the Western Powers was revealed in 1897, when China was compelled to lease Kiao Chow to Germany, Port Arthur to

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The encroachments of the Western Powers evoked intense indignation in China. The rivalry in the exploitation of the Far East by the West had begun in real earnest. Italy. Abyssinia. Having become a united nation, Italy soon developed Imperialistic ambitions. She looked towards Tunis, but was forestalled there by France in 1881. In 1884, being secure from an attack by land, by an alliance with Austria concluded in 1882, and being assured by Great Britain that the occupation by a friendly Power of

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Italian victories over the Dervishes at Agordat (1893) and Cassala (1894) encouraged the ambition of Italy for a vast African Empire. On a further Italian advance in 1895 the Abyssinians united in their resistance. Menelek repudiated all idea of a protectorate, and General Baratieri suffered a disastrous defeat at Adowah, March 1, 1896....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

The Italian suzerainty over Abyssinia was abandoned, and by the Treaty of Peace signed in September 1900, the frontiers of the Italian colony were reduced....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The attempt on the part of Italy to hunt with the lions in colonial aggrandizement ended in humiliation. Italy was now able to devote its attention to much-needed internal reforms. But the Imperialist policy only died down to be revived later. Great Britain—Egypt. Arabs and Dervishes. The Soudan had fallen into the hands of rebellious tribes under the Mahdi. In 1883 on Egyptian force under General Hicks had been defeated at El Obeid, and General Baker was also defeated in his attempt to relieve

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

British and Egyptian troops under Kitchener occupied Dongola September 23, 1896. In 1897 desert railways were constructed, and Abu Hamed and Berber were wrested from the dervishes. In 1898 reinforcements of British troops were sent from Cairo. Omdurman, the stronghold of Mahdism, was captured on September 2, 1898, and two days later Khartoum was occupied....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By an agreement between the British and Egyptian Governments in January 1899, the Soudan was placed under their joint control, the Governor-General to be appointed by the Khedive on British recommendation....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The arrival of Major Marchand at Fashoda, in September 1898, where he hoisted the French flag, created a momentary excitement and talk of war, but the British Government adopted a firm attitude, and he received orders to withdraw. No opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian agreement was encountered in Europe. The economic and agricultural development of the Soudan has since progressed rapidly. Nearly a million square miles were added to the territory under British rule. Turkey. Greece. Crete, which for

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Greek fleet, on which great hopes had been placed, effected nothing. The Turkish forces occupied Larissa, advanced across Thessaly, defeated the Greeks all along the line, and on May 17, 1897, the victory of Domokos opened to the Turks the pass which leads down to Lamia. The Powers intervened, and a armistice was signed....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, December 4, 1897, the Turks evacuated Thessaly, and certain strategic alterations were made in the frontier. Greece paid an indemnity of four millions, and accepted the European control of her finances. Crete continued to be the arena of periodic conflict. Prince George of Greece was appointed High Commissioner of the Powers under a new Constitution, but he resigned in 1906. While virtually Greek the island remained under the suzerainty of the Sul

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This was only one of the many Balkan conflicts. The intervention of the Powers was invoked in order to check any increase in the dominion of the Sultan. But owing to their own conflicting ambitions and the inherent racial complications in the Balkans, they never at any time reached a solution of the problems involved. Spain. The United States of America. The decline of the Spanish Colonial Empire (which had reached its highest point under Philip II at the end of the sixteenth century) continued

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

Two Spanish fleets were destroyed in May and July 1898, and American land forces in Cuba, the Philippines, and Porto Rico won those islands with comparatively little struggle....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the treaty of peace signed at Paris, December 1898, Spain surrendered practically all her colonies. The Caroline Islands in the Pacific were sold to Germany in 1899....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This was the last chapter in the extinction of a vast colonial Empire, which was dissolved owing to the spirit of independence in its various states and the bad government in the Mother Country. Great Britain. The Transvaal and Orange Free State. The premature annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 was resented by the majority of the Boers. In 1880 a formidable rebellion broke out, a small British force was sent out which met with determined opposition at Laing’s Nek and Ingogo, and on February 27,

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Boers invaded Natal and Cape Colony; Ladysmith, Mafeking, and Kimberley were invested. British defeats at Magersfontein, Stormberg, and Colenso (December 1899) led to Lord Roberts being sent out to supersede General Buller. Kimberley and Ladysmith were relieved, Bloemfontein fell. In May 1900 Mafeking was relieved, and in June Johannesburg and Pretoria were occupied. The attempt to insist on unconditional surrender prolonged the war for two more years....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Vereeniging , May 1902, the Transvaal lost its independence. The Orange Free State had been annexed in 1900. Under pressure from the financial interests Chinese were introduced to work the gold-mines. This was one of the chief reasons for the fall of the Conservative Government in 1906. Campbell-Bannerman, who became Prime Minister, solved the problem of the future of the Transvaal by granting them full self-government, and the importation of Chinese was stopped....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

The origin of the war can be directly traced to far less worthy causes than that of redressing the grievances of the Outlanders. The war was unnecessarily prolonged by an underestimate of the strength of the Boers and the desire to humiliate them. But the grant of self-government was the act that saved the war from being barren in results and from being the precursor of further trouble. The Union of South Africa was established in 1909. The Powers of Europe, with the exception of Italy, adopted

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The settlements at Tientsin were rescued by a Russian force. An allied force made its way through from Taku, and forced an entry into Pekin. In August a relief column of 18,000 allied troops defeated the Chinese in several engagements and marched on Pekin. The legations had for eight weeks withstood a siege. The Chinese Government gave foreigners twenty-four hours to leave the capital. The German Minister was murdered in the street. The British Legation formed the refuge of all those who were dr

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the peace protocol, which was signed on September 7, 1901, the punishment of the ringleaders was demanded: the forts between Pekin and the sea were dismantled, permanent guards for the legations were established, and a large indemnity was fixed....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Official intercourse with the Chinese Government was established on a more satisfactory basis. But serious trouble in the Far East and internal disturbances in China itself continued. Russia. Japan. When Port Arthur, which Japan had been forced to surrender in 1895, was seized by Russia there was deep indignation in Japan. In 1902 a treaty of alliance was concluded between Great Britain and Japan. Russia undertook to evacuate Manchuria, and although the withdrawal of troops began in 1903, instea

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

After successful initial encounters on the part of Japan, Port Arthur was surrendered on January 1, 1905. After a Japanese victory at Mukden, the Russians retreated. In October 1904 the Russian fleet, coming round from the Baltic, opened fire on a group of Hull fishing smacks in crossing the Dogger Bank, mistaking them for torpedo boats. The incident roused considerable indignation in Britain, but the Czar expressed his regrets. The matter was referred to a commission of admirals in Paris, and c

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Portsmouth , August 1905, the claims of Japan in Korea were recognized; Russia agreed to evacuate Manchuria and ceded the Liao-Tung peninsula (including Port Arthur) and the southern half of Sakhalin to Japan. The payment of an indemnity, which had been the chief obstacle to the conclusion of peace, was waived by Japan. The moderation of the Japanese demands made a good impression in the world, but was resented in Japan itself....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

This was a war of pure aggression, backed by high financial speculation on the part of Russia. The easy triumph of Japan was a surprise. But she was fighting for definite national objects, while the Russian people knew nothing of the cause and aims of the war. Russia spent much money in subsequent years in restoring her lost armaments. From this time on the reform movements and revolutionary spirit in Russia grew rapidly. Italy. Turkey. After the agreements with regard to North Africa between Gr

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

On September 30th, Tripoli was blockaded and occupied by the Italians on October 5th; Benghazi fell on October 20th. In spite of the publication of a decree annexing Tripoli as a province of Italy, the advance of the invaders was kept in check. Austria refused to allow operations in the Adriatic. Russia would not permit the blockade of the Dardanelles. Fighting continued with indeterminate results and in a desultory manner until a treaty of peace was finally signed at Ouchy on October 15, 1912..

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Result:

Result:

By the Treaty of Lausanne , October 15, 1912, Turkish forces were withdrawn from Tripoli and Cyrenaica, the Italians promised to withdraw from the occupied islands of the Ægean, and a commercial agreement was concluded between the two countries. There was no recognition by the Turkish Government of Italian sovereignty in Tripoli. It was enough for Italy that her sovereignty was recognized by the Powers. This was done, France delaying her assent until Italy surrendered certain privileges in Moroc

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Italy’s aggressive action was prompted by a desire not to be left behind in the competition for territorial acquisitions in Africa. Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro. Turkey. Even after the deposition of the Sultan, Abdul Hamid, and the triumph of the Young Turks in the revolution of 1908 the misgovernment of Turkey did not cease, more especially in Macedonia, where the European Powers had entirely failed to secure any reforms, but produced an intolerable situation in the Balkan Peninsula. De

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Turkish forces were completely overwhelmed. They were defeated by the Serbians at Kumanovo, October 24, 1912, and Uskub was occupied: the Greeks drove the enemy north and occupied Salonika: and the Bulgarians defeated the Ottoman army at Lule Burgas, October 31st, and advanced to Chatalja. After an armistice and an abortive attempt of the Powers to secure peace, the war broke out again. Adrianople fell March 26, 1913, and the Turks submitted....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of London Bulgaria was given a frontier from Enos on the Mediterranean to Midia on the Black Sea. The future of Albania was to be decided by the Allies and Turkey ceded the island of Crete to Greece....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Serious disputes as to the disposal of the spoils won from Turkey led immediately to the outbreak of war among the Allies. Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Roumania. Bulgaria. Turkey. In February 1912 a treaty was concluded between Bulgaria and Serbia, whereby it was agreed that North-west Macedonia should go to Serbia, another part to Bulgaria, and the zone lying between these two should be submitted to the arbitration of the Czar. In December 1912, in the First Balkan War, Austria protested against

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Course of the War:

Course of the War:

The Bulgarians found themselves invaded on four frontiers. While they were being driven back by Serbia and Greece, the Turks repudiated the Treaty of London and retook Adrianople, and Roumania advanced from the north and without striking a blow annexed a large slice of territory in the Dobrudja. Bulgaria was obliged to yield....

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Political Result:

Political Result:

By the Treaty of Bukarest , August 10, 1913, Serbia acquired a large district of South-east Macedonia, Greece obtained Kavalla, and Roumania was given possession of the territory her troops had occupied. By the Treaty of Constantinople , August 1913, Bulgaria ceded back to Turkey more than half of the territory won in the previous war, including Adrianople....

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Remarks:

Remarks:

Bulgaria being again restricted in territory felt she had been betrayed by the Powers, who did nothing to enforce the engagements of the Treaty of London. Her rivals, Serbia and Greece, gained at her expense. On the other hand, Bulgarian responsibility for the outbreak of the second war was undoubted. The European Powers, by acting together, prevented the Balkan conflict from spreading into a European War. But the Treaty of Bukarest was no settlement, and was a signal exposure of their inability

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IMPORTANT TREATIES (OTHER THAN THOSE ALREADY MENTIONED)

IMPORTANT TREATIES (OTHER THAN THOSE ALREADY MENTIONED)

The Treaty of Vienna , June 9, 1815. Second Treaty of Paris , November 20, 1815, Signed by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, France at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars. France gave up certain fortresses on the frontier but retained Alsace-Lorraine. Payment of 700 million francs was exacted from France. The greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw fell to Russia, Posen to Prussia, and Cracow became a republic. Prussia got back nearly all her old possessions, and there was a reconstru

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

( Each war has its own literature. Only a few leading authorities and books easily accessible to students are given here. ) The Cambridge Modern History, vols. xi, xii. Modern Europe. C. A. Fyffe. A Political History of Contemporary Europe. Seignobos. History of our own Times. Justin McCarthy. A Century of British Foreign Policy. Gooch and Masterman. History of our Time (1885–1911). G. P. Gooch. Wars of the Nineties. Atteridge. The Map of Europe by Treaty. Hertslet. International Law. C. E. Hall

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