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[ Édition Russe de Musique , Paris, 1922]...
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List of Works [ Édition Russe de Musique , Paris, 1922]...
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Rimsky-Korsakov had long been engrossed in his treatise on orchestration. We have in our possession a thick note book of some 200 pages in fine hand writing, dating from the years 1873-1874, containing a monograph on the question of acoustics, a classification of wind instruments and a detailed description of the construction and fingering of the different kinds of flute, the oboe, clarinet and horn. [1] In his "Memoirs of my musical life" (1 st edition, p. 120) the following passage occurs: "I had planned to devote all my energies to the compilation of a full treatise on orchestration. To this end I made several rough copies, jotting down explanatory notes detailing the technique of different instruments. What I intended to present to the world on this subject, was to include everything . The writing of this treatise, or, to be more exact, the sketch for it took up most...
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Our epoch, the post-Wagnerian age, is the age of brilliance and imaginative quality in orchestral tone colouring. Berlioz, Glinka, Liszt, Wagner, modern French composers—Delibes, Bizet and others; those of the new Russian school—Borodin, Balakirev, Glazounov and Tschaikovsky—have brought this side of musical art to its zenith; they have eclipsed, as colourists, their predecessors, Weber, Meyerbeer and Mendelssohn, to whose genius, nevertheless, they are indebted for their own progress. In writing this book my chief aim has been to provide the well-informed reader with the fundamental principles of modern orchestration from the standpoint of brilliance and imagination, and I have devoted considerable space to the study of tonal resonance and orchestral combination. I have tried to show the student how to obtain a certain quality of tone, how to acquire uniformity of structure and requisite power. I have specified the character of certain melodic figures and designs peculiar to each instrument...
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My aim in undertaking this work is to reveal the principles of modern orchestration in a somewhat different light than that usually brought to bear upon the subject. I have followed these principles in orchestrating my own works, and, wishing to impart some of my ideas to young composers, I have quoted examples from my own compositions, or given references to them, endeavouring to show, in all sincerity, what is successful and what is not. No one can know except the author himself the purpose and motives which governed him during the composition of a certain work, and the practice of explaining the intentions of a composer, so prevalent amongst annotators, however reverent and discreet, appears to me far from satisfactory. They will attribute a too closely philosophic, or excessively poetic meaning to a plain and simple fact. Sometimes the respect which great composers' names command will cause inferior examples...
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GENERAL REVIEW OF ORCHESTRAL GROUPS. The following is the formation of the string quartet and the number of players required in present day orchestras, either in the theatre or concert-room. In larger orchestras, the number of first violins may amount to 20 and even 24, the other strings being increased proportionately. But such a great quantity of strings overpowers the customary wood-wind section, and entails re-inforcing the latter. Sometimes orchestras contain less than 8 first violins; this is a mistake, as the balance between strings and wind is completely destroyed. In writing for the orchestra it is advisable to rely on a medium-sized body of strings. Played by a larger orchestra a work will be heard to greater advantage; played by a smaller one, the harm done will be minimised. Whenever a group of strings is written for more than five parts—without taking double notes or chords into consideration—these parts...
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(These instruments give all chromatic intervals.) Table A [ Enlarge ] Black lines on each string denote the general range in orchestral writing, the dotted lines give the registers, low, medium, high, very high. The five sets of strings with number of players given above produce a fairly even balance of tone. If there is any surplus of strength it must be on the side of the first violins, as they must be heard distinctly on account of the important part they play in the harmonic scheme. Besides this, an extra desk of first violins is usual in all orchestras, and as a general rule they possess a more powerful tone than second violins. The latter, with the violas, play a secondary part, and do not stand out so prominently. The 'cellos and double basses are heard more distinctly, and in the majority of cases form the bass in octaves....
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Apart from the varying number of players, the formation of the string group, with its five constituent parts remains constant, satisfying the demands of any orchestral full score. On the other hand the group of wood-wind instruments varies both as regards number of parts and the volume of tone at its command, and here the composer may choose at will. The group may be divided into three general classes: wood-wind instruments in pair's, in three's and in four's, (see table on page 13 ). Arabic numerals denote the number of players on each instrument; roman figures, the parts (1 st , 2 nd etc.). Instruments which do not require additional players, but are taken over by one or the other executant in place of his usual instrument, are enclosed in brackets. As a rule the first flute, first oboe, first clarinet and first bassoon never change instruments; considering the importance...
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In the following Table B the top note in each register serves as the bottom note in the next, as the limits to each register are not defined absolutely. The note G fixes the register of flutes and oboes, C for the clarinets and bassoons. In the very high compass those notes are only given which can really be used; anything higher and not printed as actual notes are either too difficult to produce or of no artistic value. The number of sounds obtainable in the highest compass is indefinite, and depends, partly on the quality of the instrument itself, partly on the position and application of the lips. The signs resonance are not to be mistaken for crescendo and diminuendo ; they indicate how the resonance of an instrument increases or diminishes in relation to the characteristic quality of its timbre. The scope of greatest expression for each typical...
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Flutes and clarinets are the most flexible wood-wind instruments (the flutes in particular), but for expressive power and subtlety in nuances the clarinet supersedes them; this instrument can reduce volume of tone to a mere breath. The nasal instruments, oboe and bassoon, are less mobile and supple; this is accounted for by their double reed, but, having to effect all sorts of scales and rapid passages in common with the flutes and clarinets, oboes and bassoons may be considered melodic instruments in the real sense of the word, only of a more cantabile and peaceful character. In very quick passages they often double the flutes, clarinets or strings. The four families are equally capable of legato and staccato playing and changing from one to the other in different ways, but distinct and penetrating staccato passages are better suited to the oboes and bassoons, while the flutes and clarinets excel in...
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The formation of the group of brass instruments, like that of the wood-wind is not absolutely uniform, and varies in different scores. The brass group may be divided into three general classes corresponding to those of the wood-wind (in pair's, in three's, and in four's). The directions are the same as in the preceding table for wood-wind. It is evident that in all three classes the formation may vary as the composer wishes. In music for the theatre or concert room page after page may be written without the use of trumpets, trombones and tuba, or some instrument may be introduced, temporarily as an extra . In the above table I have given the most typical formations, and those which are the most common at the present day. Note I. Besides the instruments given above, Richard Wagner used some others in The Ring , notably the quartet of tenor and...
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These instruments give all chromatic intervals. [A] [B] Table C [ Enlarge ] Natural sounds are given in white notes. The upper lines indicate the scope of greatest expression. The group of brass instruments , though uniform in resonance throughout its constituent parts, is not so well adapted to expressive playing (in the exact sense of the word) as the wood-wind group. Nevertheless, a scope of greatest expression may be distinguished in the middle registers. In company with the piccolo and double bassoon it is not given to the small trumpet ( E♭-D ) and tuba to play with any great amount of expression. The rapid and rhythmical repetition of a note by single tonguing is possible to all members of the brass, but double tonguing can only be done on instruments with a small mouth-piece, trumpets and cornets. These two instruments can execute rapid tremolando without difficulty. The remarks...
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When the usual orchestral string quartet (Vn s I, Vn s II, Violas, 'Cellos, D. basses) does not make use of the bow, but plucks the strings with the finger, it becomes to my mind a new and inde pendent group with its own particular quality of tone. Associated with the harp, which produces sound in a similar manner, I consider it separately under the heading of plucked strings. Note. In this group may be classed the guitar, zither, balalaïka; instruments plucked with a quill, such as the domra, [9] the mandoline etc., all of which may be used in an orchestra, but have no place in the scope of the present book....
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Although capable of every degree of power from ff to pp , pizzicato playing has but small range of expression, and is used chiefly as a colour effect. On open strings it is resonant and heavy, on stopped strings shorter and duller; in the high positions it is rather dry and hard. In the orchestra, pizzicato comes into operation in two distinct ways: a) on single notes, b) on double notes and chords. The fingers of the right hand playing pizz. are far less agile than the bow; pizz. passages therefore can never be performed as quickly as those played arco . Moreover, the speed of pizzicato playing depends upon the thickness of the strings; on the double basses, for instance, it must always be much slower than on the violins. In pizzicato chords it is better to avoid open strings, which produce a more brilliant tone than of covered...
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In the orchestra, the harp is almost entirely an harmonic or accompanying instrument. The majority of scores require only one harp part, but in recent times composers have written for two or even three harps, which are sometimes compressed into the one part. Note. Full orchestras should include three or even four harps. My operas Sadko , The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh , and The Golden Cockerel are designed for two harps, Mlada for three. The special function of the harp lies in the execution of chords, and the florid figures springing from them. As only four notes at the most can be played by each hand, the notes of a chord should be written close together, with not too great a space between one hand and the other. The chords must always be broken ( arpeggiato ); should the composer wish otherwise he should notify it...
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Kettle-drums, indispensable to every theatre and concert orchestra occupy the most important place in the group of percussion instruments. A pair of kettle-drums ( Timpani ), in the tonic and dominant keys, was the necessary attribute of an orchestra up to, and including Beethoven's time, but, from the middle of the 19 th century onward, in western Europe and in Russia, an ever-increasing need was felt for the presence of three or even four kettle-drums, during the whole course or part of a work. If the expensive chromatic drum, permitting instant tuning is rarely met with, still, in the majority of good orchestras, three screw drums are generally to be found. The composer can therefore take it for granted that a good timpanist, having three kettle-drums at his command, will be able to tune at least one of them during a pause of some length. The limits of possible change...
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Table D [ Enlarge ] The black notes are dry and hard, without resonance, and should only be used when doubled with the wood-wind. Table E [ Enlarge ]...
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The use of a piano in the orchestra (apart from pianoforte concertos) belongs almost entirely to the Russian school. [11] The object is two-fold: the quality of tone, either alone, or combined with that of the harp, is made to imitate a popular instrument, the guzli, (as in Glinka), or a soft peal of bells. When the piano forms part of an orchestra, not as a solo instrument, an upright is preferable to a grand, but today the piano is gradually being superseded by the celesta, first used by Tschaikovsky. In the celesta, small steel plates take the place of strings, and the hammers falling on them produce a delightful sound, very similar to the glockenspiel . The celesta is only found in full orchestras; when it is not available it should be replaced by an upright piano, and not the glockenspiel ....
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The glockenspiel ( campanelli ) may be made of steel bars, or played with a keyboard. The first type is the more satisfactory and possesses greater resonance. The use of the glockenspiel is similar to the celesta, but its tone is more brilliant and penetrating. Big bells in the shape of hollow discs or metal tubes, [12] or real church bells of moderate size may be considered more as theatrical properties than orchestral instruments. The xylophone is a species of harmonica composed of strips or cylinders of wood, struck with two little hammers. It produces a clattering sound, both powerful and piercing. To complete this catalogue of sounds mention should be made of the strings playing col legno , that is with the wood or back of the bow. The sound produced is similar to the xylophone, and gains in quality as the number of players is increased. A table...
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Instruments in this group, such as triangle, castanets, little bells, tambourine, switch or rod ( Rute. Ger.), side or military drum, cymbals, bass drum, and Chinese gong do not take any harmonic or melodic part in the orchestra, and can only be considered as ornamental instruments pure and simple. They have no intrinsic musical meaning, and are just mentioned by the way. The first three may be considered as high , the four following as medium , and the last two as deep instruments. This may serve as a guide to their use with percussion instruments of determinate sounds, playing in corresponding registers....
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In comparing the resonance of the respective groups of sound-sustaining instruments we arrive at the following approximate conclusions: In the most resonant group, the brass, the strongest instruments are the trumpets, trombones and tuba. In loud passages the horns are only one-half as strong, 1 Trumpet = 1 Trombone = 1 Tuba = 2 Horns. Wood-wind instruments, in forte passages, are twice as weak as the horns, 1 Horn = 2 Clarinets = 2 Oboes = 2 Flutes = 2 Bassoons; but, in piano passages, all wind-instruments, wood or brass are of fairly equal balance. It is more difficult to establish a comparison in resonance between wood-wind and strings, as everything depends on the number of the latter, but, in an orchestra of medium formation, it may be taken for granted that in piano passages, the whole of one department ( all 1 st Violins or all 2 nd Violins...
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MELODY. Whether it be long or short, a simple theme or a melodic phrase, melody should always stand out in relief from the accompaniment. This may be done by artificial or natural means; artificially, when the question of tone quality does not come into consideration, and the melody is detached by means of strongly accentuated dynamic shades; naturally, by selection and contrast of timbres, strengthening of resonance by doubling, tripling, etc., or crossing of parts (violoncellos above the violas and violins, clarinets or oboes above the flutes, bassoons above the clarinets etc.). Melody planned in the upper parts stands out from the very fact of position alone, and likewise, to a less degree when it is situated in the low register. In the middle of the orchestral range it is not so prominent and the methods referred to above come into operation. They may also be employed for two part...
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Melody in the soprano-alto register and an extra-high compass usually falls to the lot of the 1 st Violins, sometimes to the 2 nd Violins or to both in unison, a process which produces fuller resonance without impairing quality of tone. Examples: The Tsar's Bride 84 . [C] — Pianissimo melody (Vn s I) of a troubled dramatic character. Harmonic accompaniment (Vn s II and Violas tremolando —middle parts; the Violoncellos forming the bass). Antar , before 70 .—Descending melodic phrase, Vn s I con sordini piano . No. 1. Shéhérazade 2 nd movement B . A piano melody (Vn s I) graceful in character. Antar 12 . Light graceful melody, oriental in style; a dance measure (Vn s I con sord. ), the mutes producing a dull ethereal quality of tone. No. 2. The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh 283 . No. 3. Spanish Capriccio J ....
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Melody in the alto-tenor register and a still higher compass is assigned to the violas. Cantabile melodies however are not so frequently written for violas as for violins and 'cellos, partly because the viola tone is slightly nasal in quality and better fitted for short characteristic phrases, partly because the number of viola players in an orchestra is smaller. Melodies confided to the violas are generally doubled by other strings or by the wood-wind. Examples: No. 4. Pan Voyevoda , duet in Act II 145 . A long cantabile melody in the violas, dolce , in unison with the mezzo soprano voice. No. 5. The Golden Cockerel 193 .—Flowing cantabile . No. 6. Sadko. Symphonic tableau 12 .—Muted violas. A short dance theme, piano in D♭ major. (The same theme in Eng. horn in the 6 th scene of the opera Sadko is slightly more penetrating in tone)....
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Violoncellos, representing the tenor-bass range + an extra-high compass are more often entrusted with tense passionate cantabile melody than with distinctive figures or rapid phrases. Such melodies are usually laid out for the top string ( A ) which possesses a wonderfully rich "chest" quality. Examples: Antar 56 . Cantabile on the A string. Antar 63 . The same melody in D♭ maj. on the D string (doubled by the bassoons). No. 7. Pan Voyevoda 134 , nocturne, "Moonlight". A broad melody dolce ed espressivo , afterwards doubled by the first violins an octave higher. No. 8. Snegourotchka 231 . At the fifth bar, a melody on the A string cantabile ed espressivo , imitating the first clarinet. No. 9. Snegourotchka 274 . Melodic phrase with embellishments....
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Owing to its register— basso profondo + a still lower compass,—and its muffled resonance, the double bass is little capable of broad cantabile phrases and only in unison or in octaves with the 'cellos. In my own compositions there is no phrase of any importance given to the double bass without the support of 'cellos or bassoons. Examples: * No. 10. Legend of Kitesh 306 . Double bass solo, doubled first by the double bassoon, later by the bassoon. This example affords an instance of the rare use of the alto clef (in the last few notes). * No. 11. The Golden Cockerel 120 .—D. basses + D. bassoons....
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a) Vn s I + Vn s II.—It goes without saying that this combination entails no alteration in colour; it gains in power and richness of tone by reason of the increased number of players, and is usually attended by doubling of the melody in some departments of the wood-wind. The large number of violins prevents the wood-wind predominating, and the tone quality remains that of the string quartet, enriched and amplified. Examples: No. 12. Shéhérazade , beginning of the third movement. Cantabile for Vn s I and II on the D string, then on the A . The May Night , overture D . Quick piano melody, beginning cantabile and divided later in octaves with florid embellishment. No. 13. The Golden Cockerel 170 .—Vn s I + II muted. b) Violins + Violas.—The combination of violins and violas presents no special characteristics, as in the preceding case. The violins...
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may be used for full cantabile melodies extremely tense in character, and in forte passages for choice. Example: No. 32. Antar 65 .— are employed when the low register of each instrument is brought into play, and also to suit phrases of a rough and severe character. Examples: Legend of Kitesh 66 , opening of the 2 nd Act. No. 33. Snegourotchka 215 . Tumblers' dance. Note. The lack of balance in the distribution: is not of any great importance, for, in such cases, the partial harmonics of one octave support the tone of the other, and vice versa ....
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The distribution is very seldom found, and as a rule, only when supported by wind instruments. Examples: The Legend of Kitesh 150 ( allargando ). * Shéhérazade , 4 th movement, commencing at the 10 th bar....
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In confiding a melody in thirds to the strings it is frequently necessary to use the same quality of tone in both parts, but in the case of a melody in sixths different timbres may be employed. In writing thirds doubled in octaves, the first and second violins should be used. In spite of the difference in the quantity of players, the thirds will not sound unequal. The same arrangement may obtain in the viola and 'cello groups, but it is useless in the case of melody in sixths. Examples: * No. 34. Legend of Kitesh 34 — * Legend of Kitesh 39 — Cf. also Legend of Kitesh 223 : Distribution in octaves, thirds, and sixths is usually regulated by the normal register of the respective instruments, so as to avoid any suggestion of mannerism resulting from the disturbance of balance. But such a departure from the recognised order...
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The combination of two different wood-wind instruments in unison yields the following tone qualities: a) Flute + Oboe. A quality fuller than that of the flute, sweeter than that of the oboe. Played softly, the flute will predominate in the low, the oboe in the upper register. Example: No. 52. Snegourotchka 113 . b) Flute + Clarinet. A quality fuller than that of the flute, duller than that of the clarinet. The flute will predominate in the lower, the clarinet in the higher register. Examples: No. 53. Legend of Kitesh 330 ; also 339 and 342 . c) Oboe + Clarinet. A fuller quality than that of either instrument heard separately. The dark, nasal tone of the oboe will prevail in the low register, the bright, "chest" quality of the clarinet in the high compass. Examples: Snegourotchka 19 ; No. 54. Snegourotchka 115 . Cf. also Legend of Kitesh 68...
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When the melody is entrusted to two wood-wind instruments in octaves, the usual arrangement producing natural resonance is: The combination of flute and bassoon in octaves is rare on account of the widely separated registers of the two instruments. Deviation from the natural order, such as placing the bassoon above the clarinet or oboe, the clarinet above the oboe or flute etc., creates an unnatural resonance occasioned by the confusion of registers, the instrument of lower compass playing in its high register and vice versa . The lack of proper relationship between the different tone qualities then becomes apparent. Examples: No. 56. Spanish Capriccio O — No. 57. Snegourotchka 254 — * No. 58. Shéhérazade , 3 rd movement E — Sadko 195 — Pan Voyevoda 132 — Tsar Saltan 39 — No. 59. Vera Scheloga 30 — likewise any number of examples in the scores of various composers. The...
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In such cases the student should follow the above-mentioned rules, and should take care not to infringe the natural order: Mixed timbres may also be employed. Examples: No. 64. Spanish Capriccio P —melody in 4 octaves: The Tsar's Bride 141 —melody in 3 octaves. * Legend of Kitesh 212 — * No. 65. Antar , (1 st version) 3 rd movement, the beginning— also C , melody in 4 octaves (piccolo in the upper octaves). * Mlada , Act III, after 42 — No. 66. Shéhérazade , 3 rd movement G — Examples of melody doubled in five octaves are extremely rare; in such cases the strings participate in the process....
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Melodic progression in thirds and sixths demands either two instruments of the same colour (2 Fl., 2 Ob., 2 Cl., 2 Fag.), or instruments of different colours in the normal order of register: If this order is inverted, e.g. a strained and forced resonance is created. For progressions in thirds, the best method, from the standpoint of equality in tone is to use instruments of the same kind in pairs; for progressions in sixths instruments of different kinds are more suitable, but both courses are good and useful. They may also be employed for progressions in thirds and sixths, or thirds, fifths and sixths mixed, as for example: Music [ Listen ] Examples: Legend of Kitesh 24 —different wind instruments in turn. The May Night , Act III G — Sadko 279-280 — No. 67. Spanish Capriccio , before V —various wood-wind in thirds and sixths. Servilia 228 — The...
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music [ Listen ] Apart from the obvious distribution: there are certain complicated methods which involve doubling: The following is a complex instance somewhat vague in character: No. 69. Legend of Kitesh 35 — The natural scale, the only one which brass instruments had at their disposal prior to the invention of valves was: music [ Listen ] giving, in two part harmony: music [ Listen ] With the help of rhythm, these component parts have given rise to a whole series of themes and phrases named fanfares, trumpet calls or flourishes, best adapted to the character of brass instruments. In modern music, thanks to the introduction of valves, this scale is now possible in all keys for every chromatic brass instrument, without it being necessary to change the key, and the addition of a few notes foreign to the natural scale has enriched the possibilities of these flourishes and...
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As, from its very nature, the brass is not called upon to realise a wide range of expression, kindred instruments of one group may be employed solo , as well as in unison. The combination of 3 trombones or 4 horns in unison is frequently met with, and produces extreme power and resonance of tone. Examples: Snegourotchka 5 —4 Horns (cf. Ex. 15 ). Snegourotchka 199 —4 Horns and 2 Trumpets. Sadko 175 —1, 2, 3 Trumpets. No. 75. Sadko 305 [13] —3 Trombones. No. 76. The May Night , beginning of Act III—1, 2, 3, 4 Horns. Legend of Kitesh , end of Act I—4 Horns (cf. Ex. 70 ). No. 77. Shéhérazade , 4 th movement p. 204—3 Trombones. Mlada ; Lithuanian dance—6 Horns (cf. Ex. 61 ). Owing to the resonant power of the entire group, the equality and even gradation of tone between the dark colour...
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The combination of a wood-wind and brass instrument produces a complex resonance in which the tone of the brass predominates. This resonance is naturally more powerful than that of each instrument taken separately, but slightly sweeter than the brass instrument alone. The tone of the wood-wind blends with that of the brass, softens and rarefies it, as in the process of combining two wood-wind instruments of different colour. Instances of such doubling are fairly numerous, especially in forte passages. The trumpet is the instrument most frequently doubled: Trumpet + Cl., Trumpet + Ob., Trumpet + Fl., as well as Trumpet + Cl. + Ob. + Fl.; the horn, less often: Horn + Cl., Horn + Fag. Trombones and Tuba may also be doubled: Trombone + Fag., Tuba + Fag. Combining the Eng. horn, bass clarinet and double bassoon with the brass, in corresponding registers, presents the same characteristics. Examples: Legend...
39 minute read
Doubling the horns in octaves by clarinets, oboes or flutes often replaces the combination This is done when it is a question of introducing a rich tone into the upper octave which the trumpet is not capable of imparting. If a single horn is used, the upper part is allotted to 2 clarinets, 2 oboes, or 2 flutes. But if there are two horns playing the lower octave in unison, three or four wind instruments will be necessary above, especially in forte passages: To double a trumpet in the upper octave three or four wind instruments are required, but in the top register two flutes will suffice. Wood-wind instruments should not be used to double a trombone in the octave above; trumpets are more suitable....
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* Snegourotchka 71 — * Legend of Tsar Saltan , before 180 — * Mention should also be made of mixed timbres (wood and brass) in progression in octaves. Examples: Mlada , Act III, beginning of Scene III— No. 78. Mlada , Act III after 25 — No. 79. Mlada , Act III, before 35 —general unison. When it is desired to distribute the melody over three or four octaves, it is difficult to achieve perfect balance of tone. Examples: * Shéhérazade , 4 th movement, 15 th bar after W — * Legend of Tsar Saltan 228 —...
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In commencing this section of the work I consider it necessary to lay down the following fundamental rules which apply equally to melody, harmony, counterpoint and polyphonic writing. All combinations of strings and wood-wind are good; a wind instrument progressing in unison with a stringed instrument increases the resonance of the latter and amplifies its tone, while the quality of the strings softens that of the wood-wind. In such combinations the strings will predominate provided that the two instruments are of equal power, e.g. when violins are coupled with an oboe, a bassoon with the 'cellos. If several wind instruments play in unison with one group of strings, the latter will be overpowered. As a rule all combinations refine the characteristics of each instrument taken separately, the wood-wind losing more than the strings. Doubling in unison. The best and most natural combinations are between instruments whose registers correspond the nearest:...
43 minute read
Owing to the dissimilarity between the quality of string and brass tone, the combination of these two groups in unison can never yield such a perfect blend as that produced by the union of strings and wood-wind. When a brass and a stringed instrument progress in unison, each can be heard separately, but the instruments in each group which can be combined with the greatest amount of success are those whose respective registers correspond the most nearly; Violin + Trumpet; Viola + Horn; (for heavy massive effects). The combination of horns and 'cellos, frequently employed, produces a beautifully blended, soft quality of tone. Examples: Tsar Saltan 29 —Vn s I + II + Horn. * No. 92. The Golden Cockerel 98 —Violas con sord. + Horn....
1 minute read
The combination of members of the three groups in unison is more common, the presence of the wood-wind imparting a fuller and more evenly blended tone. The question as to which group will predominate in timbre depends upon the number of instruments employed. The most natural combinations, and those most generally in use are: Such groupings are used for preference in loud passages or for a heavy piano effect. Examples: No. 93 - 94 . Snegourotchka 218 and 219 —Vn s I + II + Cl. + Horn and Vn s I + II + Cl. + Trumpet. Servilia 168 — No. 95. Snegourotchka 325 — Pan Voyevoda 224 —Vn s + Fag. + Horn + Vn. + Cl. + Trumpet. (Stopped notes in the brass.) * Mlada , Act III, after 23 —Violas + 2 Cl. + Bass trumpet. * No. 96. Ivan the Terrible , Act III, before...
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HARMONY. The art of orchestration demands a beautiful and well-balanced distribution of chords forming the harmonic texture. Moreover, transparence, accuracy and purity in the movement of each part are essential conditions if satisfactory resonance is to be obtained. No perfection in resonance can accrue from faulty progression of parts. Note. There are people who consider orchestration simply as the art of selecting instruments and tone qualities, believing that if an orchestral score does not sound well, it is entirely due to the choice of instruments and timbres. But unsatisfactory resonance is often solely the outcome of faulty handling of parts, and such a composition will continue to sound badly whatever choice of instruments is made. So, on the other hand, it often happens that a passage in which the chords are properly distributed, and the progression of parts correctly handled, will sound equally well if played by strings, wood-wind or...
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In the very large majority of cases harmony is written in four parts; this applies not only to single chords or a succession of them, but also to the formation of the harmonic basis. Harmony which at first sight appears to comprise 5, 6, 7 and 8 parts, is usually only four part harmony with extra parts added. These additions are nothing more than the duplication in the adjacent upper octave of one or more of the three upper parts forming the original harmony, the bass being doubled in the lower octave only. The following diagrams will explain my meaning: A. Close part-writing. music [ Listen ] B. Widely-divided part-writing. music [ Listen ] Note. In widely-spaced harmony only the soprano and alto parts may be doubled in octaves. Duplicating the tenor part is to be avoided, as close writing is thereby produced, and doubling the bass part creates an...
1 minute read
The normal order of sounds or the natural harmonic scale: music [ Listen ] may serve as a guide to the orchestral arrangement of chords. It will be seen that the widely-spaced intervals lie in the lower part of the scale, gradually becoming closer as the upper register is approached: music [ Listen ] The bass should rarely lie at a greater distance than an octave from the part directly above it (tenor harmony). It is necessary to make sure that the harmonic notes are not lacking in the upper parts: The use of sixths in the upper parts, and the practice of doubling the upper note in octaves are sometimes effective methods: When correct progression increases the distance between the top and bottom notes of the upper parts, this does not matter: But it would be distinctly bad to fill in the second chord thus: Hence it follows that...
5 minute read
It is an incontrovertible rule that the resonance of different harmonic parts must be equally balanced, but this balance will be less noticeable in short sharp chords than in those which are connected and sustained. Both these cases will be studied separately. In the first case, in order to increase the number of harmonic parts, each instrument in the string group may be provided with double notes or chords of three and four notes. In the second case, the resources are limited to double notes unis , or division of parts. A. Short chords. Chords of three or four notes can only be executed rapidly on the strings. Note. It is true that the two upper notes of a chord can be sustained and held a long time; this, however, involves complications and will be considered later. Short chords, arco , only sound well when played forte ( sf ),...
3 minute read
Harmonic writing for the wood-wind may be considered from two points of view: a) instruments in pairs, 2 Fl., 2 Ob., 2 Cl., 2 Fag.; and b) instruments in three's, 3 Fl., 2 Ob., Eng. horn, 3 Cl., 2 Fag., C-fag. A. In pairs. There are three ways of distribution: 1. Superposition or overlaying (strictly following the normal order of register), 2. Crossing , and 3. Enclosure of parts. The last two methods involve a certain disturbance of the natural order of register: Overlaying. Crossing. Enclosure. music [ Listen ] In choosing one of these three methods the following points must not be forgotten: a) the register of a particular isolated chord; the soft and weak register of an instrument should not be coupled with the powerful and piercing range of another: [ Listen ] b) In a succession of chords the general progression of parts must be considered; one...
1 minute read
In writing chords of 5, 6, 7 and 8 part-harmony, whether they are independent, or constitute the harmonic basis, the student should follow the principles outlined in the previous chapter , dealing with the progression of wood-wind instruments in octaves. As the 5 th , 6 th , 7 th and 8 th notes are only duplications in octaves of lower notes of the real harmony (in 4 parts), instruments should be chosen which combine amongst themselves to give the best octaves. The process of crossing and enclosure of parts may also be used. A. Wood-wind in pairs (close distribution): music [ Listen ] In widely-divided harmony chords in several parts are to be avoided as they will entail both close and extended writing: music [ Listen ] Note. In the majority of cases this distribution is employed when the two upper harmonic parts have a special melodic duty to...
49 minute read
A. If the wood-wind is in pairs it is a good plan to mix the doubled timbres as much as possible: music Excellent [ Listen ] In chords of four-part harmony the classical method may be adopted: music [ Listen ] In this case, though the high C in the flute is fairly powerful, the resonance of the G and E in the oboes is softened by the duplication of the 2 nd flute and 1 st clarinet, while the C in the 2 nd clarinets (not doubled) is feeble in comparison with the other notes. In any case the two extreme parts are the thinnest and weakest in tone, the intermediate parts the fullest and strongest. B. Wood-wind in three's admit of perfectly balanced mixed timbres in chords of three-part harmony: music [ Listen ] These timbres may even originate from three-fold duplication: music [ Listen ]...
6 minute read
1. Modern orchestrators do not allow any void in the intermediate parts in writing close harmony; it was permitted to some extent by the classics: music [ Listen ] These empty spaces create a bad effect especially in forte passages. For this reason widely-divided harmony, which is fundamentally based on the extension of intervals, can be used but seldom and only in piano passages. Close writing is the more frequent form in all harmony devoted to the wood-wind, forte or piano . 2. As a general rule a chord of greatly extended range and in several parts is distributed according to the order of the natural scale, with wide intervals (octaves and sixths), in the bass part, lesser intervals (fifths and fourths) in the middle, and close intervals (3 rds or 2 nds ) in the upper register: music [ Listen ] 3. In many cases correct progression of parts...
1 minute read
It is evident that the quartet of horns presents every facility for four-part harmony, perfectly balanced in tone, without doubling the bass in octaves: music [ Listen ] Note. In the diagrams of the present section the actual sounds of horns and trumpets are given, as in a piano score, for the sake of simplicity. When it is found necessary to double the bass in octaves, the too resonant trombone and tuba are seldom used, the duplication being effected by the bassoon, as explained further on. The quartet of trombones and tuba is not often employed in close four-part harmony; the third trombone and the tuba usually form the bass in octaves, and the three upper parts are generally allotted to the two remaining trombones reinforced by a trumpet or two horns in unison, so as to obtain a perfect balance of tone: music [ Listen ] I have often...
8 minute read
The best combination is trombones, horns, or trumpets in three's. If the instruments are mixed the number of horns should be doubled: music [ Listen ]...
50 minute read
When the whole group is used the number of horns should be doubled: music [ Listen ] In seven, six, or five-part harmony certain instruments must be omitted: music [ Listen ] Discords of the seventh or second are preferably entrusted to instruments of different tone colour: music [ Listen ] When such chords are written for an orchestra which only includes two trumpets, it is impossible for the horns to proceed in pairs. In such cases the following arrangement may obtain, the horns being marked one degree louder than the other instruments, to secure balance of tone: music [ Listen ] The same method should be followed whenever the use of horns in pairs fails to produce satisfactory tone. When chords of widely-divided harmony are distributed throughout several harmonic registers, the register occupied by the horns need not be doubled; the arrangement of the chord will resemble that of...
3 minute read
Duplication in the brass group is most frequently effected by placing a chord for horns side by side with the same chord written for trumpets or trombones. The soft round quality of the horns intensifies the tone, and moderates the penetrating timbre of the trumpets and trombones: music [ Listen ] Similar juxtaposition of trumpets and trombones: music [ Listen ] is not so common, as this unites the two most powerful agents in the group. In handling an orchestra the brass is frequently employed to sustain notes in two or three octaves; this sphere of activity must not be ignored. The tenuto is generally given to two trumpets, or to two or four horns in the octave, (in double octaves). The octave is sometimes formed by trumpets and horns acting together: music [ Listen ] The trombone with its ponderous tone rarely takes part in such combinations. Sustained notes...
9 minute read
Wind and brass instruments may be combined by the method of placing a chord in one timbre side by side with the same chord in another timbre, or by any of the three methods already described: overlaying, crossing and enclosure of parts. This class of combination possesses the same features as combinations in the melodic line (cf. Chap. II ). Wood-wind reinforces the brass, softens it and reduces its characteristic qualities. Arrangements such as the following are possible: Also music [ Listen ] as well as: 2 Horns + 2 Fag. + 2 Cl. etc. The combinations 3 Trombones + 3 Fag., or 3 Trombones + 3 Cl. are very rare. A chord scored for full brass doubled by the same chords scored for full wood-wind (in pairs) produces a magnificent and uniform tone. Examples: Snegourotchka 315 —2 Horns + 2 Cl. and 2 Horns + 2 Ob. (cf. Ex....
1 minute read
1. We frequently meet with the combination of strings and wood-wind in the light of comparison of one timbre with another, either in long sustained notes, or tremolando in the strings. Apart from the complete or partial doubling of the string quartet (two methods frequently used), the general and most natural arrangement is: Examples: * Sadko , Symphonic Tableau before 4 , and 4 , 9 th bar. * Shéhérazade , 1 st movement M 6 Vn s soli + 2 Ob. (2 Fl.), Cl. * Antar 7 —String quartet divisi + wood-wind (cf. Ex. 151 ). * No. 171. Antar 57 —Vn s II, Violas div. + Fl., Horn (florid accompaniment in the Clar.). * Legend of Kitesh 295 —the same; rhythmic motion in the wind, sustained harmony in the strings (cf. Ex. 213 ). 2. Owing to the complete absence of any affinity in tone quality, the combination...
1 minute read
The combination of strings, wood-wind and brass instruments, set side by side, produces a full, round and firm tone. Examples: No. 172. The Tsar's Bride , before 145 —Ob., Fag. + Horns + Strings. " " " final chord (cf. Table I of chords , Ex. 5). * No. 173. Sadko , end of 1 st tableau—short chords. Last chords of the 1 st , 3 rd and 7 th tableaux (cf. Table I and III , Vol. II , Ex. 9, 10, 18). * No. 174. The Christmas Night 22 —Wind + Brass c. sord. + tremolo strings. Legend of Kitesh 162 (cf. Ex. 250 ). Snegourotchka —end of opera, (cf. Table III in Vol. II , Ex. 17) and a host of other examples. General Observations. Balance and correct distribution of tone is much more important in dealing with long sustained chords or those of rhythmic design; in...
7 minute read
There are times when the general tone, character and atmosphere of a passage, or a given moment in an orchestral work point to one, and only one particular manner of scoring. The following simple example will serve for explanation. Take a short phrase where a flourish or fanfare call is given out above a tremolando accompaniment, with or without change in harmony. There is no doubt that any orchestrator would assign the tremolo to the strings and the fanfare to a trumpet, never vice versa . But taking this for granted, the composer or orchestrator may still be left in doubt. Is the fanfare flourish suitable to the range of a trumpet? Should it be written for two or three trumpets in unison, or doubled by other instruments? Can any of these methods be employed without damaging the musical meaning? These are questions which I shall endeavour to answer. If...
3 minute read
The word tutti generally means the simultaneous use of all instruments, but the word "all" is used relatively, and it must not be inferred that every single instrument must necessarily be employed to form a tutti . In order to simplify the following illustrations I will divide the word into two classes, full tutti and partial tutti ,—independently of whether the orchestra is constructed in pairs, in three's, or a larger number of instruments. I call full tutti the combination of all melodic groups, strings, wind, and brass. By partial tutti I mean passages in which the brass group only takes part, whether two horns or two trumpets participate alone, or whether two horns are combined with one or three trombones, without tuba, trumpets, or the two remaining horns, etc.: In both species of tutti full wood-wind may be employed or not, according to the register and musical context of...
1 minute read
In many cases the wood-wind and brass groups can form a tutti by themselves for periods of varying length. Sometimes this is effected by the wood-wind alone, but more frequently with the support of horns. At other times the horns are found alone without the wood-wind, and, lastly, a tutti may be comprised of instruments of each group in varying numbers. The addition of kettle-drums and the rest of the percussion is quite common and constitutes what the Germans call "Janitscharenmusik", or Turkish infantry music. Violoncellos and double basses playing more or less important pizz. notes are often added to wood-wind instruments ( tutti ), likewise the remainder of the strings and the harps; this process renders the sustained notes in the wood-wind more distinct. Tutti passages in wood-wind and horns do not produce any great amount of power in forte passages, but, on the other hand tutti in the...
51 minute read
The quartet of strings ( pizzicato ), reinforced occasionally by the harp and piano, may, in certain cases constitute a particular kind of tutti , which can only attain any great degree of strength by support from the wood-wind. Without this support it is of medium power, though still fairly brilliant in quality. Examples: No. 216. Snegourotchka , before 128 ; cf. also 153 and before 305 . * No. 217. Russian Easter Fête K ; cf. also U and V . * Spanish Capriccio A , C , before S , before P ; cf. also O ( Ex. 56 ). Mlada , Act II 15 . * Sadko : 220 (cf. Ex. 295 ). * Legend of Kitesh 101 . * No. 218. The May Night , Act I, The Mayor's Song—combination of strings, arco and pizz....
41 minute read
It often happens that a moderately full orchestral ensemble executes a passage composed of one or two harmonic parts, in unison or in octaves. Such melodic phrases call for more or less simple orchestration with the usual doubling of parts, or, in ornamental writing, admit of contrast in tone colouring, occasionally with the addition of sustained notes. Examples: Snegourotchka , before 152 , 174 , 176 . The Tsar's Bride 120-121 (cf. Ex. 63 ). The Golden Cockerel 215 . * No. 219 - 221 . Legend of Kitesh 142 , 144 , 147 —3 part Tutti , with different scoring. * Legend of Kitesh 138 , 139 — Tutti in one part....
3 minute read
Although, in any orchestral piece, numerous instances are to be found of melodies and phrases entrusted to a solo wind instrument (generally the first of each group, wood-wind or brass), solos for stringed instruments, on the other hand, are extremely rare. Whilst the 1 st violin and 1 st 'cello are fairly frequently used in this manner, the solo viola is seldom found, and a solo on the double bass is practically unknown. Phrases demanding particular individuality of expression are entrusted to solo instruments; likewise passages that require extraordinary technique, beyond the scope of the orchestral rank and file. The comparatively weak tone of the solo instrument necessitates light, transparent accompaniment. Difficult virtuoso solos should not be written, as they attract too much attention to a particular instrument. Solo stringed instruments are also used when vigourous expression and technical facility are not required, but simply in order to obtain that...
1 minute read
It is seldom that the entire orchestral conception is centred in the upper register of the orchestra (the 5 th and 6 th octaves), still more rarely is it focussed wholly in the lowest range (octaves 1 and -1) where the proximity of harmonic intervals creates a bad effect. In the first case the flutes and piccolo should be used along with the upper notes of the violins, soli or divisi ; in the second case the double bassoon and the low notes of the bassoons, bass clarinet, horns, trombones and tuba are brought into play. The first method gives brilliant colour, the second combination is dark and gloomy. The contrary would be fundamentally impossible. Examples: The upper and lower parts of a passage can seldom be widely separated without the intermediate octaves being filled in, for this is contrary to the first principles of proper distribution of chords. Nevertheless...
1 minute read
A phrase or a figure is often transferred from one instrument to another. In order to connect the phrases on each instrument in the best possible way, the last note of each part is made to coincide with the first note of the following one. This method is used for passages the range of which is too wide to be performed on any one instrument, or when it is desired to divide a phrase into two different timbres. Examples: * Snegourotchka 137 —The melody is transferred from the violins to the flute and clarinet (cf. Ex. 28 ). * " before 191 —Solo violin—Solo 'cello. Pan Voyevoda 57 —Trombones—Trumpets; Horn—Ob. + Cl. A similar operation is used in scoring passages covering the entire orchestral scale, or a great portion of it. When one instrument is on the point of completing its allotted part, another instrument takes up the passage, starting...
1 minute read
1. The most usual practice is to employ chords on different groups of instruments alternately. In dealing with chords in different registers care should be taken that the progression of parts, though broken in passing from one group to another, remains as regular as if there were no leap from octave to octave; this applies specially to chromatic passages in order to avoid false relation. Examples: No. 239. Ivan the Terrible , Act II 29 . No. 240 - 241 . The Tsar's Bride 123 , before 124 . * No. 242 - 243 . " " " 178 , 179 . * Note. The rules regulating progression of parts may sometimes be ignored, when extreme contrast of timbre between two adjacent chords is intended. Examples: * Shéhérazade , 8 th bar from the beginning, (the chromatic progression at the 12 th bar is undertaken by the same instruments, the...
1 minute read
The operation which consists in contrasting the resonance of two different groups (* or the different timbres of one and the same group), either in sustained notes or chords, transforms a simple into a complex timbre, suddenly, or by degrees. It is used in establishing a crescendo . While the first group effects the crescendo gradually, the second group enters piano or pianissimo , and attains its crescendo more rapidly. The whole process is thereby rendered more tense as the timbre changes. The converse operation—the transition from a complex to a simple timbre, by the suppression of one of the groups, belongs essentially to the diminuendo . No. 245. Snegourotchka 313 . " 140 (cf. Ex. 244 ). A Fairy Tale V . Shéhérazade , 2 nd movement D (cf. Ex. 74 ). * " 4 th movement p. 221. No. 246. Servilia 228 ; cf. also 44 . The...
1 minute read
As regards choice of timbre, phrases in imitation are subject to the law of register. When a phrase is imitated in the upper register it should be given to an instrument of higher range and vice versa . If this rule is ignored an unnatural effect will be produced, as when the clarinet in its upper range replies to the oboe in the lower compass etc. The same rule must be followed in dealing with phrases, actually different, but similar in character; repeated phrases of different character should be scored in a manner most suitable to each. Examples: The Tsar's Bride 157 , 161 . Legend of Kitesh 40-41 . * No. 251. Spanish Capriccio S . In echo phrases, that is to say imitation entailing not only decrease in volume of tone but also an effect of distance, the second instrument should be weaker than the first, but the...
55 minute read
Besides the natural dynamic process of obtaining these marks of expression, a process which depends upon the player, they may also be produced by artificial means of orchestration. a) At the moment when the wood-wind begins a piano chord, the strings attack it sforzando , a compound chord for preference, either arco or pizz. In the opposite case the sf in the strings must occur at the end of the wood-wind chord. The first method is also employed for a sf-dim. , and the second for a cresc.-sf effect. b) It is not so effective, and therefore less frequent to give the notes of sustained value to the strings, and the short chords to the wood-wind. In such cases the tenuto chord is played tremolando on the strings. Examples: Vera Scheloga , before 35 , 38 , 10 th bar. * No. 253. Legend of Kitesh , before 15-16 ....
55 minute read
In order to stress or emphasise a certain note or chord, besides the marks of expression decrescendo and sf , chords of 2, 3, and 4 notes can be inserted into the melodic progression by the instruments of the string quartet, each playing a single note; short notes in the wood-wind may also be used as well as a chain of three or four grace notes, in the form of a scale, either in strings or wood-wind. These unstressed notes (anacrusis), generally written very small, form a kind of upward glide, the downward direction being less common. As a rule they are connected to the main note by a slur. In the strings they should not lead up to chords of three or four notes, as this would be awkward for the bow. Examples: No. 254. The Tsar's Bride 142 —Anacrusis in the strings. * No. 255. Shéhérazade , 2...
1 minute read
Short crescendi and diminuendi are generally produced by natural dynamic means; when prolonged, they are obtained by this method combined with other orchestral devices. After the strings, the brass is the group most facile in producing dynamic shades of expression, glorifying crescendo chords into the most brilliant sforzando climaxes. Clarinets specialise in diminuendo effects and are capable of decreasing their tone to a breath ( morendo ). Prolonged orchestral crescendi are obtained by the gradual addition of other instruments in the following order: strings, wood-wind, brass. Diminuendo effects are accomplished by the elimination of the instruments in the reverse order (brass, wood-wind, strings). The scope of this work does not lend itself to the quotation of prolonged crescendo and diminuendo passages. The reader is referred, therefore, to the full scores: * Shéhérazade , pp. 5-7, 92-96, 192-200. * Antar 6 , 51 . * The Christmas Night 183 . *...
2 minute read
In the majority of cases, diverging and converging progressions simply consist in the gradual ascent of the three upper parts, with the bass descending. The distance separating the bass from the other parts is trifling at first, and grows by degrees. On the other hand, in converging progressions, the three upper parts, at first so far distant from the bass, gradually approach it. Sometimes these progressions involve an increase or a decrease in tone. The intermediate intervals are filled up by the introduction of fresh parts as the distance widens, so that the upper parts become doubled or trebled. In converging progressions the tripled and doubled parts are simplified, as the duplicating instruments cease to play. Moreover, if the harmony allows it, the group in the middle region which remains stationary is the group to be retained, or else the sustained note which guarantees unity in the operation. Below, the...
3 minute read
Melodic design comprising notes foreign to the harmony, passing or grace notes, embellishments etc., does not permit that a florid outline should proceed at the same time with another one, reduced to essential and fundamental notes: Melodic design. Fundamental notes. [ Listen ] If, in the above example, the upper part is transposed an octave lower, the discordant effect produced by the contact of appoggiaturas and fundamental notes will be diminished; the quicker the passage is played the less harsh the effect will be, and vice versa . But it would be ill-advised to lay down any hard and fast rule as to the permissible length of these notes. There is no doubt that the harmonic notes, the thirds of the fundamental one ( E ) are more prominent from their proximity with the notes extraneous to the harmony. If the number of parts is increased (for instance, if the...
54 minute read
I apply this name to some orchestral operations which are based on certain defects of hearing and faculty of perception. Having no wish to specify those that already exist or to foretell those which may yet be invented, I will mention, in passing, a few which have been used by me in my own works. To this class belong glissando scales or arpeggios in the harp, the notes of which do not correspond with those played simultaneously by other instruments, but which are used from the fact that long glissandi are more resonant and brilliant than short ones. Examples: Snegourotchka 325 (cf. Ex. 95 ). No. 275. Pan Voyevoda 128 . * Shéhérazade , 3 rd movement M , 5 th bar (cf. Ex. 248 ). * Russian Easter Fête D (cf. Ex. 248 ). * Enharmonic glissando in the strings should also be mentioned. No. 276. The Christmas Night...
1 minute read
Whenever some portion of the orchestra executes a rhythmic figure, percussion instruments should always be employed concurrently. An insignificant and playful rhythm is suitable to the triangle, tambourine, castanets and side drum, a vigourous and straightforward rhythm may be given to the bass drum, cymbals and gong. The strokes on these instruments should almost invariably correspond to the strong beats of the bar, highly-accented syncopated notes or disconnected sforzandi . The triangle, side drum and tambourine are capable of various rhythmic figures. Sometimes the percussion is used separately, independently of any other group of instruments. The brass and wood-wind are the two groups which combine the most satisfactorily with percussion from the standpoint of colour. The triangle, side drum, and tambourine go best with harmony in the upper register; cymbals, bass drum and gong with harmony in the lower. The following are the combinations most generally employed: tremolo on the...
1 minute read
Neither musical feeling nor the ear itself can stand, for long, the full resources of the orchestra combined together. The favourite group of instruments is the strings, then follow in order the wood-wind, brass, kettle-drums, harps, pizzicato effects, and lastly the percussion, also, in point of order, triangle, cymbals, big drum, side drum, tambourine, gong. Further removed stand the celesta, glockenspiel and xylophone, which instruments, though melodic, are too characteristic in timbre to be employed over frequently. The same may be said of the piano and castanets. A quantity of national instruments not included in the present work may be incorporated into the orchestra; such are the guitar, the domra, zither, mandoline, the oriental tambourine, small tambourine etc. These instruments are employed from time to time for descriptive-aesthetic purposes. These instruments are most frequently used in the above-named order. A group of instruments which has been silent for some time...
2 minute read
In accompanying the voice orchestral scoring should be light enough for the singer to make free use of all the dynamic shades of expression without hardness of tone. In overflowing lyrical moments, where full voice is required, the singer should be well supported by the orchestra. Opera singing may be divided into two general classes, lyric singing and declamation or recitative. The full, round, legato aria affords greater facility for tone production than florid music or recitative, and the more movement and rhythmic detail contained in the vocal part, the greater freedom and liberty must there be given to the voice. In such a case the latter should not be doubled by the orchestra, neither should rhythmical figures be written for any instrument corresponding with those in the vocal part. In accompanying the voice the composer should bear these points in mind before turning his attention to the choice of...
3 minute read
The group of strings is the most transparent medium and the one least likely to overpower the voice. Then come the wood-wind and the brass, the latter in the following order: horns, trombones, trumpets. A combination of strings, pizz. , and the harp forms a setting eminently favourable for the voice. As a general rule a singer is more easily overpowered by long sustained notes than by short detached ones. Strings doubled in the wood-wind and brass, and brass doubled by wood-wind are combinations liable to drown the singer. This may be done even more easily by tremolando in the kettle-drums and other percussion instruments, which, even by themselves are capable of overpowering any other orchestral group of instruments. Doubling of wood-wind and horns, and the use of two clarinets, two oboes or two horns in unison to form one harmonic part is likewise to be avoided, as such combinations...
3 minute read
Melodic doubling of voices by orchestral instruments (in unison or octaves) is of frequent occurrence, but incessant duplication for an extended period of time should be avoided; it is only permissible in isolated phrases. The most natural duplication in unison of womens' voices is performed by violins, violas, clarinets and oboes; that of mens' voices by violas, 'cellos, bassoons and horns. Doubling in octaves is usually done in the upper register. Trombones and trumpets overpower the voice and cannot be used for this purpose. Uninterrupted or too frequent duplication should be avoided, not only because the operation deprives the singer of full freedom of expression, but also because it replaces by a mixed timbre the rare characteristic qualities of the human voice. Doubling, when limited to a few special phrases supports the voice and endows it with beauty and colour. It is only suitable in tempo ; to apply it,...
4 minute read
The accompaniment of recitative and melodic declamatory phrases should be light enough to allow the voice to come through without strain, and the words to be heard distinctly. The most convenient method is to employ sustained chords and tremolo on the strings or wood-wind, giving free latitude to the voice from a rhythmic point of view ( a piacere ). Examples: No. 287. Snegourotchka 16 . No. 288. The Tsar's Bride 124-125 . The following double examples, similar from a musical point of view, show different methods of handling an orchestra from the standpoint of accompaniment to the voice, and the tutti form. No. 289 - 291 . Sadko 99-101 and 305-307 (compare also Ex. 75 ). Vera Scheloga 3-7 and 28 . Care should be taken not to score too heavily when accompanying singers in the wings. * No. 292. Sadko 316 , 318 , 320 . * Legend...
57 minute read
When an aria or recitative is coupled with the chorus great care must be taken in the choral writing. A woman's solo voice stands out well against a male voice chorus, likewise a solo male voice against a women's chorus, for in both cases, the timbre of the solo voice differs from the rest. But the combination of solo voice and chorus, of the same timbre, or mixed chorus, creates a certain amount of difficulty. In such cases the soloist should sing in a higher register than the chorus, the former a piena voce , the latter piano . The soloist should stand as near to the footlights as possible; the chorus up-stage. The orchestration should be adapted to the soloist, not to the chorus. Examples: No. 298. Snegourotchka 143 . Ivan the Terrible. Act II 37 (cf. Ex. 296 ). When the chorus sings in the wings the soloist...
3 minute read
The use of instruments on the stage or in the wings dates from distant times (Mozart, Don Giovanni , string orchestra in Act I, finale ). In the middle of last century orchestras of brass instruments, or brass and wood-wind combined, made their appearance on the stage (Glinka, Meyerbeer, Gounod and others). More modern composers have abandoned this clumsy practice, not only unfortunate from the spectators' point of view, but also detrimental to the mediaeval or legendary setting of the majority of operas. Only those stage instruments are now used which suit the scene and surroundings in which the opera is laid. As regards instruments in the wings, invisible to the audience, the question is simple. Nevertheless, for the musician of today the choice of these instruments must be regulated by aesthetic considerations of greater importance than those governing the selection of a military band. The instruments are played in...
2 minute read
Among all the confused terms employed in singing to denote the compass, register and character of the human voice, there are four which may be said to represent elemental types: soprano, alto or contralto, tenor and bass. These names are used to denote the composition of the chorus with sub-divisions of firsts and seconds , to determine how the parts must be divided. (Sopr. I, Sopr. II etc.) While the range of an instrument is exactly governed by its construction, the compass of the voice, on the other hand, depends on the individuality of the singer. It is therefore impossible to define the exact limits of each of these vocal types. When it is a question of dividing choristers into 1 st and 2 nd parts, those with the higher voices are classed among the firsts and vice versa . Besides the principal terms mentioned above, the names mezzo-soprano (between...
1 minute read
I advise the composer to be guided by Table F. which gives the approximate range of the six principal solo voices. A bracket under the notes defines the normal octave, the register in which the voice is generally used. Within these limits the composer may write freely without fear of hardening or tiring the voice. The normal octave applies also to declamatory singing and recitative; the notes above it are exceptional and should be used for the culminating points of a passage or for climaxes, the notes below, for the fall or decline of a melody. Employing voices in unusual registers for long periods of time will weary both singer and listener, but these registers may occasionally be used for brief intervals so as not to confine the voice too strictly to one octave. A few examples are added to illustrate melody in different types of voices. Examples: The Tsar's...
49 minute read
A good vocal melody should contain notes of at least three different values, minims, crotchets and quavers (or crotchets, quavers and semiquavers etc.). Monotony in rhythmic construction is unsuited to vocal melody; it is applicable to instrumental music, but only in certain cases. Cantabile melody requires a fair number of long notes, and a change of syllable in a word should occur at a moment when the voice quits a long sustained note. Short, single notes, changing with every syllable produce a harmonious effect. Owing to the requirements of diction, extended melodic figures sung legato on one syllable must be used with care on the part of the composer; to perform these the singer must possess greater command over flexibility and technique. The possibility of taking breath in the right place is one of the conditions essential to all vocal writing. Breath cannot be taken in the middle of a...
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Chorus Soloists Note. It must be remembered that there are some words upon which the voice may not dwell, or sing more than one or two notes. These words may be nouns, pronouns, numerals, prepositions, conjunctions and other parts of speech. It would be impossible and ridiculous, for instance, to write a sustained note on such words as "who", "he" etc. The voice may dwell on certain words which, so to speak, possess some poetical colour. [18] Examples: No. 303. Sadko 236 —Sadko's Aria (Tenor). " 309-311 (see extract, Ex. 81 ). Volkhova's Cradle Song (Soprano). Snegourotchka 9 —Fairy Spring's Aria (Mezzo-sopr.). " 187-188 , 212-213 (see extracts, Ex. 102 and 225 )—the two Cavatinas of Tsar Berendey (Tenor). " 247 —Miskir's Aria (Baritone)....
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As regards vocalisation on one syllable, on long sustained notes and in the high register, the choice of vowels is a matter of some importance. The difference in the position of the mouth and lips in forming the open vowel a and the closed vowel ou is apparent to everyone. The series of vowels from the point of view of open sounds is: a , i , o , e , u . In women's voices the easiest vowel on high notes is a , for men it is o . The vowel i softens the penetrating quality of the top notes of a bass voice, and the vowel a adds to the extension of range in the very lowest compass. Lengthy florid passages are often written on the interjection ah , or simply on the vowel a . Owing to the restrictions imposed by literary and dramatic laws, the...
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Voices possess the greatest amount of flexibility in their normal octave. Women's voices are more supple than men's, but in all types, the higher voice is the more agile, sopranos in women, the tenor voice in men. Although capable of performing florid and complicated figures, different varieties of phrasing and the rapid change from staccato to legato, the human voice is infinitely less flexible than a musical instrument. In passages of any rapidity, diatonic scales and arpeggios in thirds come easiest to the voice. Intervals bigger than fourths in quick succession and chromatic scales are extremely difficult. Skips of an octave or more starting from a short note should always be avoided. Preparation should precede any extremely high note either by leading up to it gradually, or by the clear leap of a fourth, fifth or octave; but sometimes the voice may attack a high note without any due preparation....
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Note. After Meyerbeer, who was the first to write for a special type of heavy mezzo-soprano and baritone, Richard Wagner created a type of powerful dramatic soprano, of extensive range, combining the quality and scope of the soprano and mezzo-soprano voices; likewise a similar type of tenor, possessing the attributes and compass of the tenor and baritone together. To demand that voices shall be equally brilliant and resonant in the high and low register, that singers shall be endowed with a super-powerful breathing apparatus and an extraordinary faculty for resistance to fatigue (Siegfried, Parsifal, Tristan, Brünhilda, Kundry, Isolda), is to exact something little short of the miraculous. Such voices are to be found, but there are some singers with excellent though not phenomenal vocal powers, who, by the constant pursuit of Wagnerian parts endeavour to increase their range and volume, and only succeed in depriving the voice of correct intonation,...
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The combinations most conducive to the proper movement of parts are those of two voices related within an octave Movement in tenths, sixths, thirds or octaves (the last very seldom) will always produce satisfactory ensemble , and if the parts progress polyphonically, it need not happen frequently that they are separated by more than a tenth, or that undesirable crossing of parts will result. Examples: Sadko 99-101 —Sopr. and Tenor (cf. Ex. 289 , 290 ). Servilia 143 —Sopr. and Tenor. Ivan the Terrible , Act I 48-50 —Sopr. and Tenor. Kashtcheï the Immortal 62-64 . Mezzo-sopr. and Baritone. Voices related in fifths and fourths, should progress nearer to one another; it is rare for them to move in tenths, common in sixths and thirds; they may also proceed in unison. The two voices are seldom separated at a greater distance than an octave, and certain cases will require crossing...
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All that has been said regarding the relationship of voices in duet applies with equal force to the combination of three, four, five or more voices. An ensemble of several voices is seldom purely polyphonic; as a rule, although some parts move polyphonically, progression in thirds, sixths, tenths and thirteenths is used for the remainder. Declamation for some voices on notes forming the harmony is also possible. This variety of simultaneous movement of vocal parts renders the comprehension of the total effect less difficult for the ear, and sanctions the distribution of distinctive and suitable figures or tone colouring to certain voices with other figures or timbres which may be proceeding at the same time. The skilful arrangement of pauses and re-entries facilitates the understanding of the whole, and gives desirable prominence to detail. Examples: Snegourotchka 267 —Trio, Finale to Act III. The Tsar's Bride 116-118 —Quartet in Act II....
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The range of choral voices is slightly more limited than that of soloists. The exceptional register may be considered as two notes above and below the normal octave. The dotted lines extended still further indicate the limits upon which a composer may rely in very exceptional cases, as every full chorus must contain a few voices of more than average compass, in this respect approaching the solo voice in character. In many choruses one or two bass singers may be found who are able to go still lower than the limit of the exceptional range (they are called octavists ). [19] Note. These uncommonly deep notes must be moderately well sustained and can only be used when the whole chorus is singing quite piano ; they are hardly applicable except in unaccompanied choruses ( a cappella ). The difference in range between the "firsts" and "seconds" in each type may...
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Melody is more limited in the chorus than in the solo voice, both as regards range as well as mobility. Choristers' voices are less "settled" and not so highly trained as those of soloists. Sometimes solo and choral melody are similar in point of range and technique, but more often the latter is lacking in freedom and variety of rhythm, restricted as it is to the repetition of short phrases, while the solo voice demands broader melodic outline and greater freedom in construction. In this respect choral melody more closely resembles instrumental melody. Pauses for taking breath are not so important with chorus singers as with soloists; the former do not need to breathe all together and each singer may take a slight rest from time to time, thus obviating the necessity for sudden complete silences. The question of suitable vowels is likewise of secondary importance. The change from notes...
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The simplest and most natural combination of voices is sopranos and altos, or tenors and basses. These combinations produce ample and vigourous tone, and the mixed timbres serve to give prominence to a melody in the upper or bass parts. In practice the other voices are often divided to thicken the harmony. The combination of altos and tenors produces a peculiar mixed tone quality, somewhat bizarre and seldom used. Examples: Snegourotchka 64 . Sadko 208 (cf. Ex. 14 )....
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The most beautiful and natural combinations are sopranos and tenors altos and basses they produce a tone both brilliant and powerful. Progression of sopranos and altos, or tenors and basses is seldom practised. Though the latter combinations may occur in choruses for women and men alone, they can only be used in melodies of restricted length. The difference of register in which the voices move does not permit of the same balance of tone obtained by voices of a distinctive kind. Examples: Snegourotchka 60 , 61 —Carnival Procession. " 113 —Wedding Ceremony. Sadko 37 —Chorus of Guests, 1 st Tableau. Dividing kindred voices in octaves is seldom done, etc., except perhaps in the basses when the progression of parts demand it, or it is required to double the bass part in octaves. Examples: Ivan the Terrible , Act III 68 —Final chorus (cf. Ex. 312 ). Sadko 341 —Final chorus....
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The purely harmonic progression of a four-part mixed chorus is more natural and resonant when the harmony is of the widely divided order, so that the volume of tone is equally distributed throughout. Example: No. 307. Sadko 144 —Beginning of 3 rd tableau. To secure a well-balanced forte chord in close part writing the following distribution is recommended: Three harmonic parts in the high register (2 sopranos and altos) are doubled an octave lower by 2 tenors and the 1 st basses. The lower part is undertaken by the 2 nd basses. In this manner the tenors sing in the soprano octave, the 1 st basses in the alto octave and the 2 nd basses are independent. Examples: Snegourotchka 327 —End of the work. Mlada , Act II 20 —Procession of Princes. Ivan the Terrible , Act II 19 (cf. Ex. 212 ). Division of parts can be adopted when...
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In writing a three-part female chorus the division should be either the same for men: The choice of distribution depends upon which voice is to predominate, or the register in which the group is to be placed. The manner of divid ing the parts may change, one following the other at will. In four-part harmonic writing the method of division is self-evident: To give prominence to a melody in the middle part in three-part harmony, the following method may be adopted: If, in three-part writing, the melody has to stand out in the upper part, the harmony may be either widely-divided or close. Examples: Ivan the Terrible , Act I 25-26 , 23-31 (Women's chorus). Sadko , before 181 —Men's chorus (cf. Ex. 27 ). No. 311. Sadko 270-272 —Women's chorus. In four-part choral writing close harmony is preferable, otherwise the upper part will be in too high a register...
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"IVAN THE TERRIBLE", opera in 3 acts, 1894 edition. "SNEGOUROTCHKA", opera in prologue and 4 acts (1880-1881). "THE LEGEND OF TSAR SALTAN", opera in prologue and 4 acts (1899-1900). "SERVILIA", opera in 5 acts (1900-1901). "KASHTCHEÏ THE IMMORTAL", opera in 1 act of 3 scenes (1902). "PAN VOYEVODA", opera in 4 acts (1902-1903). "VERA SCHELOGA", prologue to "IVAN THE TERRIBLE", op. 54 (1898). "ANTAR", symphonic suite (2 nd symphony), new edition of 1897, published in 1913....
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"SADKO", symphonic poem, 1891-1892 edition. "THE GOLDEN COCKEREL", opera in 3 acts (1906-1907)....
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"THE MAY NIGHT", opera in 3 acts (1878-1879). "MLADA", opera-ballet in 4 acts (1889-1890). "THE CHRISTMAS NIGHT", opera in 4 acts (1894-1895). "SADKO", opera-legend in 7 scenes (1895-1896). "THE TSAR'S BRIDE", opera in 4 acts (1898). "THE LEGEND OF THE INVISIBLE CITY OF KITESH AND THE MAID FEVRONIA", opera in 4 acts (1903-1905). "SPANISH CAPRICCIO", op. 34 (1887). "SHEHERAZADE", symphonic suite from the "THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS", op. 35 (1888). "RUSSIAN EASTER FÊTE", Overture on Russian Church Themes, op. 36 (1888)....
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[ Vol. I p. 102 ] [ PDF ] NOTE. These diagrams are given in semibreves. They do not include percussion instruments of indeterminate sound or the human voice. NOTA. Ces exemples sont donnés sous forme demi-schématique, en rondes. Ils ne comportent ni les instruments de percussion à sons indéterminés, ni les voix humaines. Appendix I Appendix II Appendix III...