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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE History Of Western Europe
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE History Of Western Europe
BY JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON Professor of History in Columbia University History is no easy science; its subject, human society, is infinitely complex. Fustel de Coulanges GINN & COMPANY BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON Entered at Stationers' Hall Copyright , 1902, 1903 BY JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 612.1 The Athenæum Press GINN & COMPANY · PROPRIETORS · BOSTON · U.S.A....
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PREFACE
PREFACE
In introducing the student to the history of the development of European culture, the problem of proportion has seemed to me, throughout, the fundamental one. Consequently I have endeavored not only to state matters truly and clearly but also to bring the narrative into harmony with the most recent conceptions of the relative importance of past events and institutions. It has seemed best, in an elementary treatise upon so vast a theme, to omit the names of many personages and conflicts of second
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THE HISTORICAL POINT OF VIEW
THE HISTORICAL POINT OF VIEW
1. History, in the broadest sense of the word, is all that we know about everything that man has ever done, or thought, or hoped, or felt. It is the limitless science of past human affairs, a subject immeasurably vast and important but exceedingly vague. The historian may busy himself deciphering hieroglyphics on an Egyptian obelisk, describing a mediæval monastery, enumerating the Mongol emperors of Hindustan or the battles of Napoleon. He may explain how the Roman Empire was conquered by the G
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WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS
WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS
4. No one can hope to understand the Middle Ages who does not first learn something of the Roman Empire, within whose bounds the Germans set up their kingdoms and began the long task of creating modern Europe. At the opening of the fifth century there were no separate, independent states in western Europe such as we find on the map to-day. The whole territory now occupied by England, France, Spain, and Italy formed at that time only a part of the vast realms ruled over by the Roman emperor and h
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THE GERMAN INVASIONS AND THE BREAK-UP OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
THE GERMAN INVASIONS AND THE BREAK-UP OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
9. Previous to the year 375 the attempts of the Germans to penetrate into the Empire appear to have been due to their love of adventure, their hope of enjoying some of the advantages of their civilized neighbors, or the need of new lands for their increasing numbers. And the Romans, by means of their armies, their walls, and their guards, had up to this time succeeded in preventing the barbarians from violently occupying their territory. But suddenly a new force appeared which thrust the Germans
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THE RISE OF THE PAPACY
THE RISE OF THE PAPACY
17. While the Franks were slowly developing the strength which Charlemagne employed to found the most extensive realm that has existed in Europe since the Roman Empire, another government, whose power was far greater, whose organization was far more perfect, and whose vitality was infinitely superior to that of the Frankish empire, namely, the Christian Church, was steadily extending its sway and establishing the foundations of its later supremacy. We have already seen how marvelously the Christ
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THE MONKS AND THE CONVERSION OF THE GERMANS
THE MONKS AND THE CONVERSION OF THE GERMANS
21. It would be difficult to overestimate the variety and extent of the influence that the monks exercised for centuries in Europe. The proud annals of the Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits contain many a distinguished name. The most eminent philosophers, scientists, historians, artists, poets, and statesmen may be found among their ranks. Among those whose achievements we shall study later are The Venerable Bede, Boniface, Abelard, Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Fra Angelico, Sav
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CHARLES MARTEL AND PIPPIN
CHARLES MARTEL AND PIPPIN
24. Just as the pope was becoming the acknowledged head of the Western Church, the Frankish realms came successively under the rule of two great statesmen, Charles Martel and his son Pippin the Short, who laid the foundation of Charlemagne's vast empire. The difficulties which Charles Martel had to face were much the same as those which for centuries to follow confronted the sovereigns of western Europe. The great problem of the mediæval ruler was to make his power felt throughout his whole terr
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CHARLEMAGNE
CHARLEMAGNE
28. Charlemagne is the first historical personage among the German peoples of whom we have any satisfactory knowledge. [39] Compared with him, Theodoric, Charles Martel, Pippin, and the rest are but shadowy figures. The chronicles tell us something of their deeds, but we can make only the vaguest inferences in regard to their character and temperament. The appearance of Charlemagne, as described by his secretary, so exactly corresponds with the character of the king as exhibited in his great rei
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THE DISRUPTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE
THE DISRUPTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE
35. It was a matter of great importance to the world whether Charlemagne's extensive empire was, after his death, to remain one or to fall apart. He himself appears to have had no expectation that it would hold together, for in 806 he divided it up in a very arbitrary manner among his three sons. We do not know whether he was led thus to undo his life's work simply because the older tradition of a division among the king's sons was as yet too strong to permit him to hand down all his possessions
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FEUDALISM
FEUDALISM
40. Feudalism was the natural outcome of the peculiar conditions which prevailed in western Europe during the ninth and tenth centuries. Its chief elements were not, however, newly invented or discovered at that period but were only combined in order to meet the demands of the times. It will be well, therefore, to consider briefly those customs in the later Roman Empire and among the invading Germans which suggest (1) the habit of the mediæval landowner of granting his land to others in such a w
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE
46. There is no more interesting or important phase of mediæval history than the gradual emergence of the modern national state from the feudal anarchy into which the great empire of Charlemagne fell during the century after his death. No one should flatter himself that he has grasped the elements of the history of western Europe unless he can trace in a clear, if general, way the various stages by which the states which appear now upon the map of Europe—the French republic, the German Empire, A
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ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES
ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES
51. The country of western Europe whose history is of greatest interest to English-speaking peoples is, of course, England. From England the United States and the vast English colonies have inherited their language and habits of thought, much of their literature, and many peculiarities of their laws and institutions. In this volume it will not, however, be possible to study England except in so far as it has played a part in the general development of Europe. This it has greatly influenced by it
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GERMANY AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES
GERMANY AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES
56. The history of the kingship in the eastern, or German, part of Charlemagne's empire is very different from that in France, which was reviewed in a previous chapter. After a struggle of four hundred years, it had become clear by the thirteenth century that the successors of Louis the German (Charlemagne's grandson) could not make of Germany a kingdom such as St. Louis left to his descendants. From the thirteenth century down to Napoleon's time there was no Germany in a political sense, but on
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THE CONFLICT BETWEEN GREGORY VII AND HENRY IV
THE CONFLICT BETWEEN GREGORY VII AND HENRY IV
63. Among the writings of Gregory VII there is a very brief statement, called the Dictatus , of the powers which he believed the popes to possess. Its chief claims are the following: The pope enjoys a unique title; he is the only universal bishop and may depose and reinstate other bishops or transfer them from place to place. No council of the Church may be regarded as speaking for Christendom without his consent. The Roman Church has never erred, nor will it err to all eternity. No one may be c
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THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS AND THE POPES
THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS AND THE POPES
66. Frederick I, nicknamed Barbarossa, i.e., "Redbeard," who became king of Germany in 1152, [118] is the most interesting of all the German emperors; and the records we have of his reign enable us to gain a pretty good view of Europe in the middle of the twelfth century. With his advent, we feel that we are emerging from that long period which used to be known as the dark ages. Most of our knowledge of European history from the sixth to the twelfth century is derived from meager and unreliable
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THE CRUSADES
THE CRUSADES
73. Of all the events of the Middle Ages, the most romantic and fascinating are the Crusades, the adventurous expeditions to Syria, undertaken by kings and doughty knights with the hope of permanently reclaiming the Holy Land from the infidel Turks. All through the twelfth and thirteenth centuries each generation beheld at least one great army of crusaders gathering from all parts of the West and starting toward the Orient. Each year witnessed the departure of small bands of pilgrims or of solit
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THE MEDIÆVAL CHURCH AT ITS HEIGHT
THE MEDIÆVAL CHURCH AT ITS HEIGHT
78. In the preceding pages it has been necessary to refer constantly to the Church and the clergy. Indeed, without them mediæval history would become almost a blank, for the Church was incomparably the most important institution of the time and its officers were the soul of nearly every great enterprise. In the earlier chapters, the rise of the Church and of its head, the pope, has been reviewed, as well as the work of the monks as they spread over Europe. We must now consider the mediæval Churc
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HERESY AND THE FRIARS
HERESY AND THE FRIARS
84. It is natural to ask whether the commanders of the great army which made up the Church proved valiant leaders in the eternal warfare against evil. Did they, on the whole, resist the temptations which their almost limitless power and wealth constantly placed in their way? Did they use their vast resources to advance the cause of the Great Leader whose humble followers and servants they claimed to be? Or were they, on the contrary, selfish and corrupt, turning the teachings of the Church to th
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THE PEOPLE IN COUNTRY AND TOWN
THE PEOPLE IN COUNTRY AND TOWN
92. Since the development of the rather new science of political economy, historical writers have become much interested in the condition and habits of the farmer, tradesman, and artisan in the Middle Ages. Unfortunately no amount of research is likely to make our knowledge very clear or certain regarding the condition of the people at large during the five or six centuries following the barbarian invasions. It rarely occurred to a mediæval chronicler to describe the familiar things about him, s
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THE CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES
THE CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES
97. The interest of the Middle Ages lies by no means exclusively in the statesmanship of kings and emperors, their victories and defeats; in the policy of popes and bishops; or even in feudalism and Europe's escape from it. Important as all these are, we should have but a very imperfect idea of the period which we have been studying if we left it without considering the intellectual life and the art of the time, the books that were written, the universities that were founded, and the cathedrals
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THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
105. In dealing with the history of Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the following order has been adopted. (1) England and France are treated together, since the claims of the English kings to the French crown, and the long Hundred Years' War between the two countries, bring them into the same tale of disorder and final reorganization. (2) Next the history of the papal power and the remarkable efforts to better the Church at the great Council of Constance (1414) are considere
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THE POPES AND THE COUNCILS
THE POPES AND THE COUNCILS
112. The influence which the Church and its head exercised over the civil government in the Middle Ages was due largely to the absence of strong, efficient rulers who could count upon the support of a large body of prosperous and loyal subjects. So long as the feudal anarchy continued, the Church endeavored to supply the deficiencies of the restless and ignorant princes by striving to maintain order, administer justice, protect the weak, and encourage learning. So soon, however, as the modern st
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THE ITALIAN CITIES AND THE RENAISSANCE
THE ITALIAN CITIES AND THE RENAISSANCE
117. While England and France were settling their differences in the wretched period of the Hundred Years' War, and the little German principalities, left without a leader, [212] were busied with their petty concerns, Italy was the center of European culture. Its cities,—Florence, Venice, Milan, and the rest,—reached a degree of prosperity and refinement undreamed of beyond the Alps. Within their walls learning and art made such extraordinary progress that this period has received a special name
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EUROPE AT THE OPENING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
EUROPE AT THE OPENING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
129. Two events took place in the early sixteenth century which fundamentally influenced the history of Europe. (1) By a series of royal marriages a great part of western Europe was brought under the control of a single ruler, Emperor Charles V. He inherited Burgundy, Spain, portions of Italy, and the Austrian territories; and, in 1519, he was chosen emperor. There had been no such dominion as his in Europe since the time of Charlemagne. Within its bounds lay Vienna, Brussels, Madrid, Palermo, N
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GERMANY BEFORE THE PROTESTANT REVOLT
GERMANY BEFORE THE PROTESTANT REVOLT
133. By far the most important event in the sixteenth century and one of the most momentous in the history of the western world, was the revolt of a considerable portion of northern and western Europe from the mediæval Church. There had been but two serious rebellions earlier. The first of these was that of the Albigenses in southern France in the thirteenth century; this had been fearfully punished, and the Inquisition had been established to ferret out and bring to trial those who were disloya
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MARTIN LUTHER AND HIS REVOLT AGAINST THE CHURCH
MARTIN LUTHER AND HIS REVOLT AGAINST THE CHURCH
141. Martin Luther was of peasant origin. His father was very poor, and was trying his fortune as a miner near the Harz Mountains when his eldest son, Martin, was born in 1483. Martin sometimes spoke, in later life, of the poverty and superstition which surrounded him in his childhood; of how his mother carried on her back the wood for the household and told him stories of a witch who had made away with the village priest. The boy was sent early to school, for his father was determined that his
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COURSE OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLT IN GERMANY 1521–1555
COURSE OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLT IN GERMANY 1521–1555
149. As Luther neared Eisenach upon his way home from Worms he was seized by a band of men and conducted to the Wartburg, a castle belonging to the elector of Saxony. Here he was concealed until any danger from the action of the emperor or diet should pass by. His chief occupation during several months of hiding was to begin a new translation of the Bible into German. He had finished the New Testament before he left the Wartburg in March, 1522. Up to this time, German editions of the Scriptures,
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THE PROTESTANT REVOLT IN SWITZERLAND AND ENGLAND
THE PROTESTANT REVOLT IN SWITZERLAND AND ENGLAND
158. For at least a century after Luther's death the great issue between Catholics and Protestants dominates the history of all the countries with which we have to do, except Italy and Spain, where Protestantism never took permanent root. In Switzerland, England, France, and Holland the revolt against the mediæval Church produced profound changes, which must be understood in order to follow the later development of these countries. We turn first to Switzerland, lying in the midst of the great ch
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THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION—PHILIP II
THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION—PHILIP II
167. There had been many attempts, as we have seen, before Luther's appearance, to better the clergy and remedy the evils in the Church without altering its organization or teachings. Hopeful progress toward such a conservative reform had been made even before the Protestants threw off their allegiance to the pope. [308] Their revolt inevitably hastened and stimulated the reform of the ancient Church, to which the greater part of western Europe still remained faithful. The Roman Catholic churchm
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THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR
THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR
178. The last great conflict caused by the differences between the Catholics and Protestants was fought out in Germany during the first half of the seventeenth century. It is generally known as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), but there was in reality a series of wars; and although the fighting was done upon German territory, Sweden, France, and Spain played quite as important a part as Germany. Just before the abdication of Charles V, the Lutheran princes had forced the emperor to acknowledge
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STRUGGLE IN ENGLAND FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT
STRUGGLE IN ENGLAND FOR CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT
183. The great question which confronted England in the seventeenth century was whether the king should be permitted to rule the people, as God's representative, or should submit to the constant control of the nation's representatives, i.e., Parliament. In France the Estates General met for the last time in 1614, and thereafter the French king made laws and executed them without asking the advice of any one except his immediate counselors. In general, the rulers on the continent exercised despot
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THE ASCENDENCY OF FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV
THE ASCENDENCY OF FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV
191. Under the despotic rule of Louis XIV (1643–1715) France enjoyed a commanding influence in European affairs. After the wars of religion were over, the royal authority had been reëstablished by the wise conduct of Henry IV. Richelieu had solidified the monarchy by depriving the Huguenots of the exceptional privileges granted to them for their protection by Henry IV; he had also destroyed the fortified castles of the nobles, whose power had greatly increased during the turmoil of the Huguenot
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RISE OF RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA
RISE OF RUSSIA AND PRUSSIA
197. We have had little occasion hitherto, in dealing with the history of western Europe, to speak of the Slavic peoples, to whom the Russians, Poles, Bohemians, and many other nations of eastern Europe belong. Together they form the most numerous race in Europe, but, as has been well said, "they occupy a greater place on the map than in history." In the eighteenth century, however, Russia began to take an increasingly important part in European affairs, and it is now a great force in the politi
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THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND
THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND
203. In the last chapter we reviewed the progress of affairs in eastern Europe and noted the appearance of two new and important powers, Prussia and Russia, which, together with Austria, were engaged during the eighteenth century in extending their bounds at the expense of their weak neighbors, Poland and Turkey. In the west, England was rapidly becoming a dominant power. While she did not play a very important part in the wars on the continent, she was making herself mistress of the seas. At th
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THE EVE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
THE EVE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
209. When we meet the words "French Revolution," they are pretty sure to call up before our mind's eye the guillotine and its hundreds of victims, the storming of the Bastile, the Paris mob shouting the Marseillaise hymn as they parade the streets with heads of unfortunate "aristocrats" on their pikes. Every one knows something of this terrible episode in French history. Indeed, it has made so deep an impression on posterity that we sometimes forget that the Reign of Terror was not the French Re
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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
218. It was necessary, in order to avoid ruin, Calonne claimed, "to reform everything vicious in the state." He proposed, therefore, to reduce the taille , reform the salt tax, do away with the interior customs lines, correct the abuses of the guilds, etc. But the chief reform, and by far the most difficult one, was to force the privileged classes to surrender their important exemptions from taxation. He hoped, however, that if certain concessions were made to them they might be brought to conse
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THE FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC
THE FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC
227. We have now studied the progress and nature of the revolution which destroyed the old régime and created modern France. Through it the unjust privileges, the perplexing irregularities, and the local differences were abolished, and the people admitted to a share in the government. This vast reform had been accomplished without serious disturbance and, with the exception of some of the changes in the church, it had been welcomed with enthusiasm by the French nation. This permanent, peaceful r
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NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
238. The aristocratic military leaders of old France had either run away or been discredited along with the noble class to which they belonged. Among the commanders who, through exceptional ability, arose in their stead, one was soon to dominate the history of Europe as no man before him had ever done. For fifteen years, his biography and the political history of Europe are so nearly synonymous that the period that we are now entering upon may properly be called after him, the Napoleonic Period.
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EUROPE AND NAPOLEON
EUROPE AND NAPOLEON
245. The activity of the extraordinary man who had placed himself at the head of the French republic was by no means confined to the important alterations of the map of Europe described in the previous chapter. He was indefatigable in carrying out a series of internal reforms, second only in importance to those of the great Revolution of 1789. The Reign of Terror and the incompetence of the Directory's government had left France in a very bad plight. [419] Bonaparte's reorganization of the gover
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EUROPE AFTER THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
EUROPE AFTER THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
256. There is no more important chapter in the political history of Europe than the reconstruction of the map after Napoleon's abdication. The allies immediately reinstated the Bourbon dynasty on the throne of France in the person of Louis XVI's younger brother, the count of Provence, who became Louis XVIII. [436] They first restricted France to the boundaries that she had had at the beginning of 1792, but later deprived her of Savoy as a punishment for yielding to the domination of Napoleon aft
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THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY
THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY
263. In 1848 the gathering discontent and the demand for reform suddenly showed their full strength and extent; it seemed for a time as if all western Europe was about to undergo as complete a revolution as France had experienced in 1789. With one accord, and as if obeying a preconcerted signal, the liberal parties in France, Italy, Germany, and Austria, during the early months of 1848, overthrew or gained control of the government, and proceeded to carry out their programme of reform in the sam
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EUROPE OF TO-DAY
EUROPE OF TO-DAY
275. The scholars and learned men of the Middle Ages were but little interested in the world about them. They devoted far more attention to philosophy and theology than to what we should call the natural sciences. They were satisfied in the main to get their knowledge of nature from reading the works of the ancients, above all of Aristotle. Roger Bacon, as we have seen, protested against the exaggerated veneration for books. He foresaw that a careful examination of the things about us,—like wate
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LIST OF BOOKS[475]
LIST OF BOOKS[475]
Adams, George B. , Civilization during the Middle Ages (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.50). Adams, George B. , Growth of the French Nation (The Macmillan Company, $1.25). Andrews , Historical Development of Modern Europe (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $2.75). Bryce , The Holy Roman Empire (The Macmillan Company, $1.00). Cambridge Modern History , Volume I (The Macmillan Company, $3.75). Cesaresco , Liberation of Italy (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.75). Cheyney , Industrial and Social History of England (The M
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE
By JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON Professor of History in Columbia University IN ONE VOLUME 12mo, cloth, 714 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.60 IN TWO VOLUMES Volume I . 12mo, cloth, 368 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.00 Volume II . 12mo, cloth, 364 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.00 The excellence of Robinson's "History of Western Europe" has been attested by the immediate and widespread adoption of the book in many of the best schools and colleges of the country. It is an epoch-ma
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READINGS IN EUROPEAN HISTORY
READINGS IN EUROPEAN HISTORY
By James Harvey Robinson , Professor of History in Columbia University. Designed to supplement his "Introduction to the History of Western Europe" Volume I . 12mo, cloth, 551 pages, $1.50 Volume II . 12mo, cloth, xxxii + 629 pages, $1.50 Abridged Edition . 12mo, cloth, xxxiv + 573 pages, $1.50 It is now generally recognized among teachers of history that the text-book should be supplemented by collateral reading. Professor Robinson's "Readings" will supply a need that has long been felt by those
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READINGS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY
READINGS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY
A collection of extracts from sources chosen with the purpose of illustrating some of the chief phases of the development of Europe during the last two hundred years By James Harvey Robinson , Professor of History, and Charles A. Beard , Adjunct Professor of Politics, in Columbia University Volume I. The Eighteenth Century: The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Period. 12mo, cloth, illustrated, 410 pages, $1.40 Volume II. Europe since the Congress of Vienna. 12mo, cloth, illustrated, 448 page
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TRENHOLME'S SYLLABI
TRENHOLME'S SYLLABI
By NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME Professor of History and the Teaching of History in the University of Missouri A SYLLABUS FOR THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE Part I. The Middle Ages 12mo, cloth, vii + 80 pages, 40 cents Part II. The Modern Age 12mo, cloth, vii + 94 pages, 40 cents In One Volume 60 cents This topical outline is arranged to accompany Robinson's "History of Western Europe" or to correlate with "Readings in European History" by the same author. It is not a lecture syllabus, but is meant
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