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BURIED CITIES AND BIBLE COUNTRIES
BURIED CITIES AND BIBLE COUNTRIES
BY GEORGE ST CLAIR, F.G.S. MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF BIBLICAL ARCHÆOLOGY; MEMBER OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, AND TEN YEARS LECTURER FOR THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. SECOND EDITION LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO. Ltd. IMPORTED BY THOMAS WHITTAKER 2 & 3 BIBLE HOUSE NEW YORK...
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PREFACE.
PREFACE.
This book contains a description of some of the most important modern discoveries bearing upon the Bible, the selection being made to meet the wants of those who have no time to follow the course of exploration, and no taste for technical details. The preparation of such a volume has often been urged upon me by those who have listened to my lectures on Palestine Exploration. In such a work accuracy is of more value than originality; and therefore I have not hesitated to gather information from t
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I. The Rosetta Stone: Decipherment of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs.
I. The Rosetta Stone: Decipherment of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs.
To all who are interested in the ancient history of mankind, the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphs is a fact of the highest importance. As early as the fourth dynasty, and probably as early as the first, the Egyptians possessed the art of writing; but for thousands of years before the present century the hieroglyphs had become a dead language, which nobody could read. Temples and tombs in the valley of the Nile contained records which might be of surpassing interest; but the clue to them
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2. Kings and Dynasties of Egypt.
2. Kings and Dynasties of Egypt.
It will be useful to give here a table of Egyptian Dynasties, so that when we come to speak of Israel in Egypt the reader may have some idea of the long antecedent history of the Empire, and the political circumstances of the time. Unfortunately we must be content at present with approximate dates, for the records of the Egyptians are not dated, and the chronology is but very imperfectly known. Table of the Egyptian Dynasties. [1] In the time of Moses the Egyptian power had already passed its ze
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3. The Finding of the Mummies.
3. The Finding of the Mummies.
In 1878 the Khedive Said Pasha authorised Professor Maspero to found a Museum at Boulak (a suburb of Cairo), for the reception of all the antiquities found in the country and calculated to throw light on Egyptian history. Under the successive direction of Professor Maspero and Professor Grébaut the collection has become one of the most valuable and most instructive in the world. In 1881 the museum was enriched by the most important archæological discovery of modern times. On the 5th of July of t
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4. Egyptians in Palestine before the Exodus.
4. Egyptians in Palestine before the Exodus.
When the tribes of Israel were preparing to pass over Jordan, they were told that they were going to possess nations greater and mightier than themselves, a people great and tall, whose cities were fenced up to heaven (Deut. ix. 1; i. 28). Of these early inhabitants of Palestine, the spies had reported that Amalek dwelt in the land of the South; the Hittite, the Jebusite, and the Amorite dwelt in the mountains, and the Canaanite dwelt by the sea and along by the side of Jordan (Num. xiii. 29). W
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The Hittites.
The Hittites.
As there were seven “nations” in Canaan, and the land itself is no larger than Wales, it was long supposed that each of the “nations” was but a small tribe, and was too insignificant to make any figure in history. But we have lately learned that if this was the rule, the Hittites were an exception to it. They were a great people, or perhaps a great confederacy or empire, spread over a vast region in northern Syria and some of the adjacent countries. Their dominion extended more or less over Asia
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5. Semites in Egypt before the Oppression.
5. Semites in Egypt before the Oppression.
If, as seems probable, the Pharaoh of Joseph was Apepi, the last of the Shepherd Kings, and the Pharaoh of the Oppression was Rameses II., the third king of the nineteenth dynasty, we have a period of nearly three centuries between Joseph and the “new king who knew not Joseph.” The period appears to be much too long to make the expression “new king” seem natural, while at the same time a shorter period would hardly leave room for the descendants of Jacob to multiply and become a danger to Egypt.
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6. Israel in Egypt.
6. Israel in Egypt.
We have seen how well the general political circumstances in Egypt and Palestine, in the centuries before the Exodus, supplement the Bible narrative, explaining on the one hand why the Israelites were oppressed, and showing on the other how Canaan was prepared for their easy conquest. But while the fact that Rameses II. was the Pharaoh for whom Israel built “treasure cities” is demonstrated beyond reasonable contradiction, it is remarkable that the inscriptions do not say anything about the Isra
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7. Buried Cities of the East—Preliminary.
7. Buried Cities of the East—Preliminary.
If the buried cities of the East had been altogether destroyed and lost, and we possessed only a brief record of their disappearance, the subject might not possess much interest for us, and there would be no material for writing a book. But we are now witnessing a resurrection of some of them, and are recovering a story of the past, such as revived Egyptian mummies might be able to tell. Nay, not only Egyptians who walked about— but Chaldean shepherds who watched the stars and were perhaps the f
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8. Biblical Sites in Egypt.
8. Biblical Sites in Egypt.
It is justly remarked by Rev. Greville J. Chester that there is scarcely a better or more striking commentary upon the prophets of Israel than the present condition of the ancient Biblical cities of Lower Egypt. For information regarding these cities—or what remains of them, buried in the soil—we are largely indebted to the Egypt Exploration Fund, which was founded in 1883, for the purpose of promoting historical investigation in Egypt, by means of systematically conducted explorations. Particul
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9. The Route of the Exodus.
9. The Route of the Exodus.
As Succoth was the first station of the Israelites in leaving Egypt, and we now know the locality, we begin to be able to trace their route. Starting from Rameses—a city not yet identified, but perhaps near the present Zagazig [11] —two courses were open to them. They might go northward, past the city of Zoan, and then skirt the coast of Philistia—the route generally taken by the great conquerors, and by much the nearer way. But there were objections against taking it, for “it came to pass in th
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10. The Wilderness Wanderings.
10. The Wilderness Wanderings.
All questions regarding the actual route of the Israelites and the true Mount Sinai were carefully studied during the Ordnance Survey of the Sinai Desert in 1868–9. The expedition was conducted by Major Henry Spencer Palmer, R.E., and Colonel Sir Charles Wilson, R.E., and the results were published in 1872, by authority of the Treasury, in five massive folio volumes. It may be fairly said that this expedition vindicated the accuracy of the Bible narrative; for the late Prof. E. H. Palmer, who wa
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1. Palestine generally.
1. Palestine generally.
It will be a useful preliminary to our study of Palestine if we give here a short list of the expeditions sent out by the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. We were already greatly indebted to many explorers—Dr Robinson, Burckhardt, Van de Velde, &c., for the geography, and M. Lartet for the geology, but there had never been any organised party in Palestine, properly equipped for a scientific survey. In 1864 Jerusalem was properly surveyed by Captain Wilson, R.E., at the expens
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2. Physical Features of Palestine.
2. Physical Features of Palestine.
“The main object of the Survey of Palestine may be said to have been to collect materials in illustration of the Bible. Few stronger confirmations of the historic and authentic character of the sacred volume can be imagined than that furnished by a comparison of the ‘Land and the Book,’ which shows clearly that they tally in every respect. Mistaken ideas and preconceived notions may be corrected; but the truth of the Bible is certainly established on a firm basis, by the criticisms of those who,
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3. The Dead Sea, Salt Sea, or Sea of Lot.
3. The Dead Sea, Salt Sea, or Sea of Lot.
It is pointed out by Sir George Grove that the name “Dead Sea” never occurs in the Bible, and appears not to have existed until the second century after Christ. It originated in an erroneous opinion, and there can be little doubt that to the name are due in a great measure the mistakes and misrepresentations which were for so long prevalent regarding this lake, and which have not indeed yet wholly ceased to exist. In the Old Testament it is called the Salt Sea, and the Sea of the Plain (Arabah).
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4. The Cities of the Plain.
4. The Cities of the Plain.
There is now a general consent that Sodom and Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboim were situated north of the Dead Sea, in the Kikkar or Plain of the Jordan. There are old maps which represent these cities as situated at the bottom of the Dead Sea waters, and yet enveloped in flames! Popular ignorance imagines that the bitumen which rises to the surface of the waters is a relic of the agency which effected the destruction. And until recently even the best scholars supposed the cities to lie beneath the sh
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5. “Lot’s Wife.”
5. “Lot’s Wife.”
In connection with the destruction of Sodom, the Bible mentions the fate which overtook Lot’s wife, who “became a pillar of salt.” In the Book of Wisdom also we read of the waste land that smoketh, and plants bearing fruit that never come to ripeness, and a standing pillar of salt—a monument of an unbelieving soul (Wisd. x. 7). Josephus also says that he had seen it (Ant. i. 11, 4). The Arabs have legends on the subject; and travellers now and again describe the pillars of salt which have been p
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6. The Natural History of Palestine, as dependent on its Physical Geography.
6. The Natural History of Palestine, as dependent on its Physical Geography.
The gradual elevation of the countries of Egypt and Palestine, inferred by Professor Hull from the geological facts, appears to be borne out by a comparison of the fishes which inhabit respectively the Lake of Galilee and the lakes of south-eastern Africa. Josephus, after describing in glowing language the beauty and fruitfulness of the country of Gennesaret, says, “For besides the good temperature of the air, it is also watered from a most fertile fountain. The people of the country call it Cap
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7. The Topographical Survey of Western Palestine.
7. The Topographical Survey of Western Palestine.
Before we can properly understand the history of any country we must have before us an accurate map, showing its physical features of mountain, plain, and river, and the relative positions of its cities and important places. This is true in an unusual degree in the case of Palestine, a country peculiar in its physical contrasts, and for more than a thousand years the home of a peculiar people. The sacred books of other religions—consisting greatly of rhapsodies, prayers, and devotions—might have
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8. Israel’s Wars and Worship, considered in connection with the Physical Features of the Country.
8. Israel’s Wars and Worship, considered in connection with the Physical Features of the Country.
Now that we possess a detailed and accurate map of the Holy Land we are in a position to study with advantage the conquest of the country by Joshua, and to appreciate the motives of strategy and policy displayed in the successive phases of Israel’s wars and worship. The twelve tribes, coming out of the wilderness, encamped in the Plain of the Jordan, opposite Jericho. While they rested there, Balak, king of Moab, alarmed by their numbers, and uncertain as to their intentions, sent to Mesopotamia
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9. Sacred Sites of the Hebrews.
9. Sacred Sites of the Hebrews.
In order to pass in review the sites selected by the Israelites for places of worship, it will be convenient to go back to the time when we find the tribes encamped at Gilgal, on their first entrance into the country. That Mount Sinai should remain sacred after the giving of the Law was to be expected; and we have just now seen that its sacredness could attract Elijah after many centuries. The Israelites, when they left the wilderness, and came to sojourn in the outskirts of Moab, were attracted
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10. The Method of the Survey, and Incidents of the Work.
10. The Method of the Survey, and Incidents of the Work.
At the commencement of the Triangulation Survey a base line was measured, near Ramleh, on the Jaffa plain, and this was afterwards checked by a second line measured on the Plain of Esdraelon. The method of work employed is described by Major Conder, both in his “Tent Work” and in his volume called “Palestine.” The camp, consisting of three or four tents, was pitched in some convenient central position, by a town or village. Thence the surveyors were able to ride 8 or 10 miles all round, and firs
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11. The East of Jordan.
11. The East of Jordan.
It would be well if the topographical survey could be extended so as to cover all the ground occupied by the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh. It is true indeed that the East of Jordan is less intimately bound up with the Scripture narrative than the West, yet still there are ninety-six places east of Jordan mentioned in the Bible—Dr Selah Merrill estimates that there are two hundred and forty—and it would be an advantage to have them all identified. On the east side, als
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1. The City as it is.
1. The City as it is.
Its position. —Jerusalem is well described in Smith’s Dict. of the Bible. It lies near the summit of the broad mountain ridge, or high, uneven table-land which extends from the Plain of Esdraelon to the desert of the south. This tract is everywhere not less than from 20 to 25 miles in breadth, and has a surface rocky and uneven. Its height at Jerusalem is 2500 feet above the Mediterranean Sea; but it continues to rise towards the south, until, in the vicinity of Hebron, the elevation is nearly 3
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2. The Sieges of Jerusalem, and the Fortunes of its Walls.
2. The Sieges of Jerusalem, and the Fortunes of its Walls.
“In considering the annals of the city of Jerusalem,” says Mr W. Aldis Wright, “nothing strikes one so forcibly as the number and severity of the sieges which it underwent. We catch our earliest glimpse of it in the brief notice of the first chapter of Judges, which describes how ‘the children of Judah smote it with the edge of the sword, and set the city on fire;’ and almost the latest mention of it in the New Testament is contained in the solemn warnings in which Christ foretold how Jerusalem
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3. Excavations at Jerusalem.
3. Excavations at Jerusalem.
In the beginning of 1867 Lieutenant Warren, R.E. (now Colonel Sir Charles Warren), began his work of excavation in Jerusalem, assisted by several corporals of sappers, and employing native Arabs as labourers. Scores of shafts were sunk through the accumulated rubbish, and were always carried down to the natural rock. In cases where the miners came upon artificial structures—arches, aqueducts, cisterns, or other works of man—they were carefully explored and measured, and plans of them made to sca
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4. Jerusalem as it was.
4. Jerusalem as it was.
The Hills and Valleys. —Sir Charles Warren was the first to point out the necessity of ascertaining the depth of the rock below the present surface, in as many places as possible, and of referring all the measurements to one fixed datum, the level of the sea. In the study of the ancient topography the original appearance of the ground is the first consideration, for although a certain amount of soil may always have existed, still the ancient surface must have conformed far more closely to that o
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5. The Walls and Gates of the City.
5. The Walls and Gates of the City.
“Even stone walls,” says Mr Lewin, “cannot fail to awaken some degree of interest, when it is remembered that upon the result of the inquiry depends the question, Where was Calvary? and where the Holy Sepulchre?” If we desire to understand Old Testament events as well as those of the Gospels we shall take some interest in the question of the correct line of the walls. The walls were perambulated by Nehemiah’s two companies on the Thanksgiving Day; certain of the gates are mentioned by name in co
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6. Incidents of the History better realised.
6. Incidents of the History better realised.
The Taking of Jerusalem by David :—The king and his men went to Jerusalem against the Jebusites, who felt so secure in their stronghold that they mocked David by putting the lame and the blind upon the walls as defenders. Nevertheless, “David took the stronghold of Zion; the same is the City of David ... and David dwelt in the stronghold and called it the City of David” (2 Sam. v.). The stronghold here spoken of is not that which is now called the tower of David, near the Jaffa Gate, nor is the
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1. Christ in the Provinces.
1. Christ in the Provinces.
In New Testament times Palestine was a Roman province, and its divisions were no longer tribal. East of Jordan were the districts of Perea Batanæa, Trachonitis, Auranitis, Paneas, and Gaulonitis. In this chapter, however, we have to do chiefly with Western Palestine. On this side the central position was held by Samaria, with Galilee north of it, Judea south, and in the extreme south Idumea. The Samaritans were not pure Hebrews in blood, and not purely Jewish in their worship. When the ten tribe
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2. Christ in the Capital.
2. Christ in the Capital.
The Jerusalem of Christ’s day was the city as it existed in the days of Herod the Great. East and west it was no wider than at present; southward it covered the high south-western hill and a good part of the slope of Ophel; northward the third wall was not yet built, but there were suburban buildings outside the second. The Temple area had been so enlarged by Herod as to include all, or nearly all, the present Noble Sanctuary; and there were approaches from the west, one of which led over Robins
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1. Assyria.
1. Assyria.
Mesopotamia —“the Land between the Rivers”—is a tract of country nearly 700 miles long, and from 20 to 250 miles broad, enclosed between the Euphrates and the Tigris, and extending from the mountains of Armenia to near the Persian Gulf. It is for the most part a vast plain, but is crossed near its centre by a range of hills running almost east and west-from Hit on the Euphrates, famous for its bitumen pits, to Samarah on the Tigris. North of this line the country, though dry and bare, is undulat
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2. Babylonia.
2. Babylonia.
Babylonia comprehended the country from near the Lower Zab to the Persian Gulf, about 400 miles long; and from Elam, east of the Tigris, to the Arabian Desert, west of the Euphrates, an average breadth of 150 miles. Its history begins very early, for one of its kings—Sargon of Accad—is believed to have reigned in 3800 B.C. The circumstance to which we owe the discovery of this remarkable fact is thus related in Dr Sayce’s “Hibbert Lectures”: “The last king of Babylonia, Nabonidos, had antiquaria
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3. How the Writings were Read.
3. How the Writings were Read.
To the ordinary visitor to the British Museum, looking at the cuneiform inscriptions—nothing but arrowhead characters variously grouped—it seems wonderful that they should constitute a language, and incredible that they should be read. The question is often asked, “How can we trust the translations put before us? How do we know that they are any more than guesses?” It may be well, therefore, to relate how the key to the lost character was obtained, and how the decipherment proceeded until now th
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