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AN INTRODUCTION TO NATURE STUDY.
AN INTRODUCTION TO NATURE STUDY.
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO AN INTRODUCTION TO NATURE-STUDY BY ERNEST STENHOUSE, B.Sc. ( Lond. ) ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, LONDON; JOINT-AUTHOR WITH A. T. SIMMONS, B.SC. OF “SCIENCE OF COMMON LIFE” MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON 1910 First Edition 1903. Reprinted 1904 (twice), 1905, 1906, (with additions)
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CHAPTER I. SEEDS AND THEIR EARLY STAGES OF GROWTH.
CHAPTER I. SEEDS AND THEIR EARLY STAGES OF GROWTH.
1. Preparation of the seeds. —Obtain several seeds of the broad bean, pea, mustard, yellow lupine, vegetable marrow, and sycamore; soak them in cold or slightly warm water until they are soft enough to be cut through easily with a sharp knife. The time necessary will vary with different seeds according to the size of the seeds, and with the temperature of the water. The beans should be left in the water for a few days. When the seeds are soft enough, examine one or two of each, and in the meanti
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CHAPTER II. HOW A GREEN PLANT FEEDS.
CHAPTER II. HOW A GREEN PLANT FEEDS.
1. A plant cannot grow permanently in damp sawdust or clean sand. —Notice that the seedlings which were grown in damp sawdust presently wither and die, while those which were grown in soil flourish, and, with proper care, come to maturity. Obtain some clean sand, and, to be sure that there is nothing in it which water can dissolve, wash the sand in several changes of clean water. Germinate some seeds in the sand, keeping it damp. The resulting plants in this case also wither and die. Evidently s
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CHAPTER III. THE FORMS AND DUTIES OF LEAVES.
CHAPTER III. THE FORMS AND DUTIES OF LEAVES.
1. The shapes. —Make a collection of the leaves of a large number of different plants, for example, elm, beech, lime, oak, birch, ash, blackberry, pine, yew, horse chestnut, rose, holly, woodsorrel, grass. Lay each in turn flat in your notebook and trace the shape of the leaf blade by passing the point of your pencil round the edge. Measure the length and greatest width; write down these dimensions. Is the greatest width at, above, or below, the middle of the leaf blade? Most of the leaves are f
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CHAPTER IV. BUDS. THE HISTORY OF A TWIG.
CHAPTER IV. BUDS. THE HISTORY OF A TWIG.
1. A typical bud. —Split a cabbage, or a lettuce “heart,” down the middle, and observe how the leaves are arranged round the conical end of the stalk. The leaves which are fixed lowest on the stalk are the largest, and they cover the outside of the bud. The leaves are smaller and smaller as they are fixed nearer and nearer the end of the stalk, until round the tip they are almost too small to be recognised as leaves. A bud is the tip or “growing point” of a stem or branch, together with the youn
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CHAPTER V.HOW STEMS DO THEIR WORK
CHAPTER V.HOW STEMS DO THEIR WORK
1. The shapes of stems. —Cut across a deadnettle stem and a wallflower stem and examine the shape of the sections. The former is square, the latter is five-ribbed. Is there any relation between the form of the stem and the arrangement of the leaves? 2. The “bleeding” of stems. —Cut through the lower part of a scarlet-runner plant in spring. Can you see any water escaping from that part of the stem still in the ground? Similarly, cut back a sunflower stem when it is from ½ to 1 inch thick. Does t
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CHAPTER VI. SOME COMMON FLOWERS.
CHAPTER VI. SOME COMMON FLOWERS.
I. The wallflower. —After noticing the general habit of growth of a wallflower plant ( Fig. 57 ), and especially the shape and venation of the leaves, make out the following parts in one of its flowers. On the top of the flower-stalk (called the receptacle ) are: Fig. 57. —Wallflower. (× ⅙.) ( a ) Four small, narrow, purplish leaves, called sepals . The four sepals together constitute the calyx . Take off the sepals one by one. Notice that two opposite sepals are bulged out at their bases, formi
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CHAPTER VII. GRASSES.
CHAPTER VII. GRASSES.
1. General features. —Pull up a sod of couch grass or of Yorkshire fog and clear away the earth as well as possible. Notice the fibrous, creeping branches or stolons , and the bunches of fine roots. In summer the plant sends up also erect branches called haulms , which bear leaves and flowers. Examine the shape of the leaves and notice their parallel venation, which indicates ( p. 40 ) that the plant is a monocotyledon. Observe how the leaves are borne on the haulms. Each leaf arises at a knot (
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CHAPTER VIII. COMMON FOREST TREES.
CHAPTER VIII. COMMON FOREST TREES.
1. The oak. —( a ) Habits of growth. —Examine an oak tree growing in an exposed situation. What is its approximate height? Estimate the diameter of the trunk at ( a ) the ground level, ( b ) at heights of 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., feet. At what height do the principal boughs come off? About what angle do the boughs make with the trunk? Are they straight, evenly curved, or zig-zag? Contrast in these respects an oak growing in a plantation. Try to account for the differences observed. ( b ) The bark. —Exa
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CHAPTER IX. FRUITS: HOW SEEDS ARE SCATTERED.
CHAPTER IX. FRUITS: HOW SEEDS ARE SCATTERED.
1. The fruit of the wallflower. —Examine wallflower fruits and make out that each consists of the ripened pistil. Does the fruit open of itself? How many chambers does it consist of? Where are the seeds attached? Are they blown off at last by the wind? Draw the fruit. It is called a siliqua . 2. Compare with this the fruit of shepherd’s purse ( Fig. 62 ), and penny cress ( Fig. 132 ), and notice that they are of the type of the wallflower fruit, but are much broader in proportion to the length.
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CHAPTER X. FERNS AND HORSETAILS.
CHAPTER X. FERNS AND HORSETAILS.
1. The male-fern. —( a ) Habit of growth. —In summer dig up a plant of the common male-fern ( Fig. 146 ) and wash the soil from the roots. Make out the short, stumpy, creeping stem , covered with the hairy bases of old leaves; the slender matted roots springing from the leaf-bases; the large, compound leaves or fronds of the current year, and the coiled young leaves which have not yet expanded. ( b ) The stem. —Remove the large leaves, leaf-bases, and roots from the stem, and examine it. Notice
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CHAPTER XI. MOSSES, MUSHROOMS, AND MOULDS.
CHAPTER XI. MOSSES, MUSHROOMS, AND MOULDS.
1. A common liverwort. —Look along the sides of a brook or a well, and try to find a flat green plant with numerous lobed and overlapping branches. Each branch is perhaps half an inch across. This is one of the commonest liverworts ( Pellia ). Notice the prominent midrib running along each branch. In spring, observe the “frilled” appearance of the end, caused by the small new branches. Pull the plant up, and notice that it is attached to the soil by a large number of fine hairs which spring from
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CHAPTER XII. THE RABBIT: A TYPICAL MAMMAL.
CHAPTER XII. THE RABBIT: A TYPICAL MAMMAL.
1. The habits of the wild rabbit. —In what places have you known wild rabbits to have a warren ? In what kind of ground is a rabbit warren generally found? How can you recognise it? Are all the holes of the warren of similar size, or can you distinguish between main entrances and “bolt-holes”? Look for smooth paths, perhaps nine inches wide, which lead to the main entrances and intersect each other, so as to form “runs.” Watch the animals feeding and playing; to do this successfully it will be n
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CHAPTER XIII. HOW A RABBIT LIVES.
CHAPTER XIII. HOW A RABBIT LIVES.
1. The examination of the bones. —In a boiled rabbit clear away the flesh from the bones. Before separating a bone, notice carefully how it is attached to neighbouring bones. Notice also, especially in the limbs, the attachment of the bundles of flesh ( muscles ) to the bones, the ends of each muscle being fixed to separate bones. Notice that the places of attachment of the largest muscles are marked by ridges or roughnesses on the bones. 2. The skull. —Observe the two rounded knobs at the back
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CHAPTER XIV. SOME OTHER MAMMALS.
CHAPTER XIV. SOME OTHER MAMMALS.
1. The external characters of the cat. —Carefully and gently examine a cat, and make notes of the following characters: ( a ) Hair. —What is the covering of the body like? Is the hair like that of a rabbit, i.e. fur ( p. 216 )? Are the whiskers very noticeable? On what parts of the head do they grow? Are the fur and large whiskers in any way connected with the animal’s habits? ( b ) Eyes. —Look at a cat’s eyes in a bright light. Is the pupil (p. 212) round or slit-like? Keep the cat in the dark
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CHAPTER XV. THE PIGEON: A TYPICAL BIRD.
CHAPTER XV. THE PIGEON: A TYPICAL BIRD.
1. General observations upon the dovecote pigeon. —Watch a group of pigeons. What is the shape of the body? With what is the body covered? What is the colour of the feathers? Does the bird walk or hop? How many walking limbs has it? Has it any other means of moving from place to place, in addition to walking? How many wings has it? Are the wings anterior or posterior ( p. 217 ) to the legs? Watch a pigeon preening its feathers; why does it apply its bill so frequently to its tail? Can the bird b
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CHAPTER XVI.THE DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION OF THE CHICK.
CHAPTER XVI.THE DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION OF THE CHICK.
Obtain three or four hen’s-eggs, and make the following observations upon them: 1. External appearance. —What is the colour of the egg? What is its shape ? How does the shape differ from that of a cricket ball or other sphere? The shape of an egg is said to be ovoid. [What is the difference between an ovoid and an oval?] Measure, with a tape, the length and breadth of the egg, and also its distance round, (i) in the direction of its greatest length, (ii) in the direction of its greatest width. W
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CHAPTER XVII. SOME FAMILIAR BRITISH BIRDS.
CHAPTER XVII. SOME FAMILIAR BRITISH BIRDS.
1. The song-thrush, mavis, or throstle. —Throstles are to be seen throughout the year. Take every opportunity of observing their habits, and make careful notes of these at the time. Especially attend to the following characters: ( a ) General appearance. —What is the average size of the bird? What is the length of the tail? At what angle is the tail held? Does the bird move it in any special manner? What is the prevailing colour of the body? Notice the light-coloured and spotted breast. Compare
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CHAPTER XVIII. FROGS AND TADPOLES.
CHAPTER XVIII. FROGS AND TADPOLES.
1. Manner of life. —Where have you found frogs? Are they commonest in dry or in damp situations? At what time of the year have you seen them actually in water? How do frogs move about? Do they walk or hop? Chase a frog, and notice that its hops become shorter as it is pursued. Upon what does the frog feed? Have you ever seen frogs abroad in the depth of winter? Are insects common in winter? How do you suppose frogs spend the winter? What are the principal enemies of frogs? 2. External characters
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CHAPTER XIX. THE HABITS AND LIFE-HISTORIES OF COMMON INSECTS.
CHAPTER XIX. THE HABITS AND LIFE-HISTORIES OF COMMON INSECTS.
1. Habits. —In what places have you seen cockroaches? Are they often to be seen during the day, or do they, in general, come forth only at night? What is the colour of the body? Put a live cockroach under a tumbler, and watch its movements. In what position is the head held? Notice the long feelers ; how are they used? Look at the lower part of the head, and try to see the palps , which resemble small feelers. How many legs has the cockroach? Watch the rhythmical movement of the hinder part of t
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CHAPTER XX.SOME CRUSTACEANS, MOLLUSCS, AND WORMS.
CHAPTER XX.SOME CRUSTACEANS, MOLLUSCS, AND WORMS.
1. The crayfish and lobster. —( a ) Habits. —Readers in limestone districts will probably be able to find crayfishes in the streams, and the habits of the animals in their natural surroundings should be observed and described. Other readers will be able to obtain live specimens from dealers. [35] Place the animal on the table or desk. Notice that the body consists of an anterior, unsegmented portion, the cephalothorax (corresponding to the head plus the thorax of an insect), and a posterior, joi
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CHAPTER XXI. FIELD-WORK.
CHAPTER XXI. FIELD-WORK.
An animal or a plant must be studied from several points of view before its manner of life can be understood in any real sense. It must, for example, be regarded, first, as a complicated piece of machinery, every part of which is beautifully fitted for the performance of a special duty; it must also be considered as an individual , having likes or dislikes—or at least tendencies—which are to some extent peculiar to itself; finally, it must be considered in its relation to other animals and plant
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JANUARY.
JANUARY.
PLANT LIFE. General. —As in December ( p. 422 ). Plants usually in flower. —Shepherd’s purse, daisy, snowdrop, and a few others. ANIMAL LIFE. Mammals. —Bats ( p. 255 ) reappear at the end of the month. Birds. —Missel thrush ( p. 306 ) sings. Insects. —Winter pupae of butterflies and moths ( Chap. XIX. ) may be found....
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FEBRUARY.
FEBRUARY.
PLANT LIFE. General. —As in December. Plants usually in flower. —Shepherd’s purse, daisy, snowdrop, hazel, and a few others. Hedges are now clipped; study the effect which this treatment has upon subsequent growth. Corn. — Barley and oats are sown. Liverworts. —Spore-cases of Pellia ( p. 200 ) become visible. ANIMAL LIFE. General. —As in December. Mammals. —Bats reappear. Birds. —Thrushes and blackbirds pair and begin to build; study differences in song (pp. 304 and 308 ). Rooks repair and build
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MARCH.
MARCH.
PLANT LIFE. General Work for Spring Months. —Study the germination of seeds and the early stages of growth of the new plants ( Chap. I. ); the structure and methods of unfolding of buds (Chaps. IV . and VIII. ); the movements of young twining stems; “bleeding” of stems, and paths of food-currents ( Chap. V. ); and examine and collect spring flowers (Chaps. VI. , VII. , and VIII. ). Plants usually in flower —Shepherd’s purse, marsh marigold, wild plum, daisy, dandelion, daffodil, snowdrop, hazel,
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APRIL.
APRIL.
PLANT LIFE. Plants usually in flower. —Wallflower, shepherd’s purse, buttercup, anemone, marsh marigold, common vetch, plum, pear, strawberry, primrose, cowslip, daisy, dandelion, speedwell, red deadnettle, daffodil, wild hyacinth, wild tulip, rushes, arum, annual meadow grass, oak, birch, alder, willow, poplar, elm, ash, and others. Trees which unfold their leaf-buds. —Larch, horse chestnut, beech, elm, sycamore. Elm fruits ( p. 154 ) are abundant; study the method of dispersal ( p. 173 ). Corn
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MAY.
MAY.
PLANT LIFE. Plants usually in flower. —Wallflower, shepherd’s purse, buttercup, anemone, marsh marigold, laburnum, common vetch, red clover, white clover, broom, cherry, apple, pear, strawberry, hawthorn, primrose, cowslip, daisy, dandelion, speedwell, red deadnettle, white deadnettle, lily of the valley, wild hyacinth, star of Bethlehem, wild tulip, rushes, sedges, arum, sweet-scented vernal grass, slender foxtail, meadow foxtail, annual meadow grass, perennial rye grass, oak, beech, birch, wil
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JUNE.
JUNE.
PLANT LIFE. General Work for Summer Months. —Study the forms and duties of leaves ( Chap. III. ); and the thickening of stems ( Chap. V. ). Examine, identify, and collect grasses ( Chap. VII. ) and summer flowers ( Chap. VI. ), and make observations upon cross-pollination of flowers by insects ( Chap. VI. ). Study the development and structure of fruits ( Chap. IX. ); and the life-history of ferns ( Chap. X. ). Compare and contrast mushrooms and toadstools ( Chap. XI. ). Plants usually in flower
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JULY.
JULY.
PLANT LIFE. Plants in flower. —Shepherd’s purse, candytuft, buttercup, meadow vetchling, red clover, white clover, wild rose, blackberry, poison hemlock, water hemlock, cow parsnip, carrot, hedge parsley, fool’s parsley, water dropwort, daisy, dandelion, thistle, foxglove, speedwell, snapdragon, mullein, musk, mint, thyme, sage, red deadnettle, white deadnettle, rushes, slender foxtail, Timothy grass, Yorkshire fog, wild oat, annual meadow grass, smooth-stalked meadow grass, rough-stalked meadow
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AUGUST.
AUGUST.
PLANT LIFE. Plants in flower. —Shepherd’s purse, candytuft, buttercup, meadow vetchling, red clover, white clover, wild rose, blackberry, water hemlock, cow parsnip, carrot, hedge parsley, fool’s parsley, water dropwort, daisy, dandelion, thistle, foxglove, speedwell, snapdragon, mullein, musk, mint, thyme, sage, red deadnettle, white deadnettle, rushes, slender foxtail, Timothy grass, Yorkshire fog, wild oat, annual meadow grass, couch grass, and others. Leaves of horse chestnut begin to fall.
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SEPTEMBER.
SEPTEMBER.
PLANT LIFE. General Work for Autumn Months. —Study the storage of food in twigs, underground stems, bulbs, etc. (Chaps. IV . and V .); collect good specimens of leaves showing autumn colours, observe the phenomena of leaf-fall and the formation of vegetable mould, and notice the order in which forest trees become leafless (Chaps. IV . and VIII .). Study the development and structure of fruits, and the methods of dispersal of seeds ( Chap. IX. ). Make collections of dry fruits ( Chap. IX. ), and
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OCTOBER.
OCTOBER.
PLANT LIFE. Plants usually in flower. —Shepherd’s purse, white clover, daisy, dandelion, snapdragon, red deadnettle, white deadnettle, slender foxtail, and others. Most forest-trees shed their leaves. Fruits of apple, pear, plum, and other plants are ripe. Corn. —Wheat-sowing continued. ANIMAL LIFE. Birds. —Young song-birds may be heard learning to sing. Fieldfares and redwings arrive. Swallows and house-martins depart. Drakes reassume their distinctive plumage. Frogs hibernate ( p. 334 ). Insec
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NOVEMBER.
NOVEMBER.
PLANT LIFE. Plants usually in flower. —Shepherd’s purse, daisy, white deadnettle, and others. Most forest-trees are now leafless. Fruits of hawthorn, rose, holly, mistletoe, etc., are ripe. Corn. —Wheat-sowing continued. ANIMAL LIFE. Mammals. —Bats hibernate ( p. 257 ). Birds. —Larks patrol fields in flocks ( p. 318 ). Insects. —Pupae may be found....
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DECEMBER.
DECEMBER.
PLANT LIFE. General Work for Winter Months. —Arrange collections of flowers, grasses, leaves, etc. Study the methods of branching, and the bark, of trees, and make drawings of typical examples ( Chap. VIII. ). Examine bulbs and corms, ( Chap. V. ) and grow them in water-glasses. Trace the water-conducting strands in the flower-stalks of snowdrop, narcissus, etc. ( Chap. V. ). Flowers of daisy, white deadnettle, and a few others may be found. Fruits of mistletoe, holly, etc., are ripe. ANIMAL LIF
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ELEMENTARY CERTIFICATE.Nature Knowledge.—
ELEMENTARY CERTIFICATE.Nature Knowledge.—
( Questions 1 and 2 and any two others to be answered. ) 1. Describe the flower provided, and draw it in longitudinal section. Explain how cross-pollination is ensured in this flower; give drawings to illustrate. 2. Give and plan out the subject-matter for one or more Lessons, to be given to children of seven or eight years of age, on the Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds by Animals. 3. Describe the structure of an Acorn and of a Wheat grain, and contrast these two seeds. Give enlarged drawings of e
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General Elementary Science. Part II.
General Elementary Science. Part II.
11. Give an example in each case of a plant with—( a ) Plumed fruits or seeds. ( b ) Winged fruits or seeds. ( c ) Climbing stem covered with hooks. ( d ) Flowers which come out before the leaves. ( e ) Flowers in which the stamens are united to form a tube. 12. Show in the case of any two British wild plants the special means they possess for survival in the struggle for existence. 13. Name five of the earliest flowering wild plants in your neighbourhood, in the order in which they flower, and
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Elementary Science.—Syllabus No. II.
Elementary Science.—Syllabus No. II.
( You should answer six questions. ) 1. Describe with the aid of a drawing the various structures seen by means of a pocket lens in a section across the middle region of a grain of wheat. 2. How would you measure the rate of transpiration of water from a small plant or a leafy stem? 3. How can it be shown that the root responds to external influences of moisture, light and gravity? 4. Give a brief account of the function of the green leaf in the nutrition of plants. 5. Compare by drawings the le
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General Biology. Section I. of Stage I.
General Biology. Section I. of Stage I.
( You are permitted to answer only eight questions. ) 1. Write what you can of the habits of the common House Fly and of the common Clothes Moth; draw figures of their appearance at different stages of the life-history. 2. Where and when do you find Frog’s eggs? Of what use is the jelly with which they are surrounded? 3. How does the Tadpole swim, and how does the Frog swim? How does the Frog jump, and how does it catch a fly? 4. Contrast the characters of the mouth (including teeth if present)
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