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THE MEDIAEVAL MIND
THE MEDIAEVAL MIND
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO THE MEDIAEVAL MIND A HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND EMOTION IN THE MIDDLE AGES BY HENRY OSBORN TAYLOR IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. I MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON 1911 TO J. I. T....
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PREFACE
PREFACE
The Middle Ages! They seem so far away; intellectually so preposterous, spiritually so strange. Bits of them may touch our sympathy, please our taste; their window-glass, their sculpture, certain of their stories, their romances,—as if those straitened ages really were the time of romance, which they were not, God knows, in the sense commonly taken. Yet perhaps they were such intellectually, or at least spiritually. Their terra —not for them incognita , though full of mystery and pall and vaguer
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CHAPTER I
CHAPTER I
GENESIS OF THE MEDIAEVAL GENIUS The antique civilization of the Roman Empire was followed by that depression of decadence and barbarization which separates antiquity from the Middle Ages. Out of the confusion of this intervening period emerged the mediaeval peoples of western Europe. These, as knowledge increased with them, began to manifest spiritual traits having no clear counterpart in the ancient sources from which they drew the matter of their thought and contemplation. The past which furni
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CHAPTER II
CHAPTER II
THE LATINIZING OF THE WEST The intellectual and spiritual life of the partly Hellenized and, at last, Christianized, Roman Empire furnished the contents of the intellectual and spiritual development of the Middle Ages. [17] In Latin forms the Christian and antique elements passed to the mediaeval period. Their Latinization, their continuance, and their passing on, were due to the existence of the Empire as a political and social fact. Rome’s equal government facilitated the transmission of Greek
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CHAPTER III
CHAPTER III
GREEK PHILOSOPHY AS THE ANTECEDENT OF THE PATRISTIC APPREHENSION OF FACT The Latin West afforded the milieu in which the thoughts and sentiments of the antique and partly Christian world were held in Latin forms and preserved from obliteration during the fifth and succeeding centuries, until taken up by the currents of mingled decrepitude and callowness which marked the coming of the mediaeval time. Latin Christianity survived, and made its way across those stormy centuries, to its mediaeval har
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CHAPTER IV
CHAPTER IV
INTELLECTUAL INTERESTS OF THE LATIN FATHERS So it was that the intellectual conditions of the Roman Empire affected the attitude of the Church Fathers toward knowledge, and determined their ways of apprehending fact. There was, indeed, scarcely a spiritual tendency or way of thinking, in the surrounding paganism, that did not enter their mental processes and make part of their understanding of Christianity. On the other hand, the militant and polemic position of the Church in the Empire furnishe
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CHAPTER V
CHAPTER V
LATIN TRANSMITTERS OF ANTIQUE AND PATRISTIC THOUGHT For the Latin West the creative patristic epoch closes with the death of Augustine. There follows a period marked by the cessation of intellectual originality. Men are engaged upon translations from the Greek; they are busy commenting upon older writings, or are expounding with a change of emphasis the systematic constructions of their predecessors. Epitomes and compendia appear, simplified and mechanical abstracts of the bare elements of inher
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CHAPTER VI
CHAPTER VI
THE BARBARIC DESTRUCTION OF THE EMPIRE [133] The Latinizing of northern Italy, Spain, and Gaul was part of the expansion of Roman dominion. Throughout these lands, alien peoples submitted to the Roman order and acquired new traits from the training of its discipline. Voluntarily or under compulsion they exchanged their institutions and customs for those of Roman Italy, and their native tongues for Latin. The education and culture of the upper classes became identical with that gained in the scho
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CHAPTER VII
CHAPTER VII
THE CELTIC STRAIN IN GAUL AND IRELAND The northern races who were to form part of the currents of mediaeval life are grouped under the names of Celts and Teutons. [144] The chief sections of the former, dwelling in northern Italy and Gaul and Spain, were Latinized and then Christianized long before the mediaeval period, and themselves helped to create the patristic and even the antique side of the mediaeval patrimony. Their rôle was largely mediatorial, and geographically, as well as in their ti
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CHAPTER VIII
CHAPTER VIII
TEUTON QUALITIES: ANGLO-SAXON, GERMAN, NORSE There were intellectual as well as emotional differences between the Celts and Teutons. A certain hard rationality and grasp of fact mark the mentality of the latter. On land or sea they view the situation, realize its opportunities, their own strength, and the opposing odds: with definite and persistent purpose they move, they fight, they labour. The quality of purposefulness becomes clearer as they emerge from the forest obscurity of their origins i
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CHAPTER IX
CHAPTER IX
THE BRINGING OF CHRISTIANITY AND ANTIQUE KNOWLEDGE TO THE NORTHERN PEOPLES “Therefore it is that a man never by his authority attains to virtue and excellence, but by reason of his virtue and excellence he attains to authority and power. No man is better for his power, but for his skill he is good, if he is good, and for his skill he is worthy of power, if he is worthy of it. Study Wisdom then, and, when ye have learned it, contemn it not, for I tell you that by its means ye may without fail att
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CHAPTER X
CHAPTER X
CAROLINGIAN PERIOD: THE FIRST STAGE IN THE APPROPRIATION OF THE PATRISTIC AND ANTIQUE With the conversion of Teuton peoples and their introduction to the Latin culture accompanying the new religion, the factors of mediaeval development came at last into conjunction. The mediaeval development was to issue from their combined action, rather than from the singular nature of any one of them. [237] Taking up the introductory theme concerning the meeting of these forces, we followed the Latinizing of
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CHAPTER XI
CHAPTER XI
MENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY: ITALY I. From Charlemagne to Hildebrand. II. The Human Situation. III. The Italian Continuity of Antique Culture. IV. Italy’s Intellectual Piety: Peter Damiani and St. Anselm. I The Empire of Charlemagne could not last. Two obvious causes, among others, were enough to prevent it. No single government (save when temporarily energized by some extraordinary ruler) could control such enormous and widely separated regions, which included much of the present G
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CHAPTER XII
CHAPTER XII
MENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY: FRANCE I. Gerbert. II. Odilo of Cluny. III. Fulbert and the School of Chartres; Trivium and Quadrivium. IV. Berengar of Tours, Roscellin, and the coming time. I It appeared in the last chapter that Anselm’s choice of topic was not uninfluenced by his northern domicile at Bec in Normandy, from which, one may add, it was no far cry to the monastery (Marmoutier) of Anselm’s sharp critic Gaunilo. These places lay within the confines of central and northern F
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CHAPTER XIII
CHAPTER XIII
MENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY: GERMANY; ENGLAND; CONCLUSION I. German Appropriation of Christianity and Antique Culture. II. Othloh’s Spiritual Conflict. III. England; Closing Comparisons. I In the Germans of the eleventh century one notes a strong sense of German selfhood, supplemented by a consciousness that Latin culture is a foreign matter, introduced as a thing of great value which it were exceeding well for them to make their own. They are even conscious of having been converted t
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CHAPTER XIV
CHAPTER XIV
THE GROWTH OF MEDIAEVAL EMOTION I. The Patristic Chart of Passion. II. Emotionalizing of Latin Christianity. The characteristic passions of a period represent the emotionalized thoughts of multitudes of men and women. Mediaeval emotional development followed prevailing ideas, opinions, convictions, especially those of mediaeval Christianity. Its most impressive phases conformed to the tenets of the system which the Middle Ages had received from the Church Fathers, and represented the complement
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CHAPTER XV
CHAPTER XV
THE REFORMS OF MONASTICISM Mediaeval Extremes; Benedict of Aniane; Cluny; Citeaux’s Charta Charitatis ; The Vita Contemplativa accepts the Vita Activa The present Book and the following will set forth the higher manifestations of the religious energies of the Middle Ages, and then the counter ideals which knights and ladies delighted to contemplate, and sometimes strove to reach. In religious as well as mundane life, ideals admired and striven for constitute human facts, make part of the human s
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CHAPTER XVI
CHAPTER XVI
THE HERMIT TEMPER Peter Damiani; Romuald; Dominicus Loricatus; Bruno and Guigo, Carthusians To contemplate goodness in God, and strain toward it in yearning love, is the method of the Christian vita contemplativa . In this way the recluse cultivates humility, patience, purity, and love, and perfects his soul for heaven. And herein, in that it is more undistracted and more undisturbed, lies the superiority of the solitary life over the coenobitic. Yet this conceived superiority is but the reason
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CHAPTER XVII
CHAPTER XVII
THE QUALITY OF LOVE IN SAINT BERNARD Through the prodigious power of his personality, St. Bernard gave new life to monasticism, promoted the reform of the secular clergy and the suppression of heresy, ended a papal schism, set on foot the Second Crusade, and for a quarter of a century swayed Christendom as never holy man before or after him. An adequate account of his career would embrace the entire history of the first half of the twelfth century. [472] The man who was to move men with his love
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CHAPTER XVIII
CHAPTER XVIII
ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI [507] Twenty-nine years after the death of St. Bernard, Francis was born in the Umbrian hill town of Assisi. The year was 1182. On the fourth of October 1226, in the forty-fifth year of his age, this most loving and best beloved of mediaeval saints breathed his last, in the little church of the Portiuncula, within the shadows of that same hill town. Of all mediaeval saints, Bernard and Francis impressed themselves most strongly upon their times. Neither of them was pre-emin
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CHAPTER XIX
CHAPTER XIX
MYSTIC VISIONS OF ASCETIC WOMEN Elizabeth of Schönau; Hildegard of Bingen; Mary of Ognies; Liutgard of Tongern; Mechthild of Magdeburg We pass to matters of a different complexion from anything presented in the last few chapters. Thus far, besides Bernard and Francis, matchless examples of monastic ideals, there have been instances of contemplation and piety, with much emotion, and a sufficiency of experience having small part in reason; also hallucinations and fantastic conduct, as in the case
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CHAPTER XX
CHAPTER XX
THE SPOTTED ACTUALITY The Testimony of Invective and Satire; Archbishop Rigaud’s Register ; Engelbert of Cologne; Popular Credences The preceding sketches of monastic qualities and personalities illustrate the ideals of monasticism. That monastic practices should fall away, corruptions enter, and when expelled inevitably return, was to be expected. The cause lay in those qualities of human nature which may be either power or frailty. The acquisitive, self-seeking, lusting qualities of men lie at
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CHAPTER XXI
CHAPTER XXI
THE WORLD OF SALIMBENE At the close of this long survey of the saintly ideals and actualities of the Middle Ages, it will be illuminating to look abroad over mediaeval life through the half mystic but most observant eyes of a certain Italian Franciscan. The Middle Ages were not characterized by the open eye. Mediaeval Chronicles and Vitae rarely afford a broad and variegated picture of the world. As they were so largely the work of monks, obviously they would set forth only what would strike the
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CHAPTER XXII
CHAPTER XXII
FEUDALISM AND KNIGHTHOOD Feudal and Christian Origin of Knightly Virtue; the Order of the Temple; Godfrey of Bouillon; St. Louis; Froissart’s Chronicles The world is evil! the clergy corrupt, the laity depraved! none denounces them! Awake! arise! be mindful! Such ceaseless cry rises more shrilly in times of reform and progress. It was the cry of the preacher in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when preaching was reviving with the general advance of life. [651] Satire and pious invective str
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CHAPTER XXIII
CHAPTER XXIII
ROMANTIC CHIVALRY AND COURTLY LOVE From Roland to Tristan and Lancelot The instance of Godfrey of Bouillon showed how easy was the passage from knighthood in history to knighthood in legend and romance: legend springing from fact, out of which it makes a story framed in a picture of the time; romance unhistorical in origin, borrowing, devising, imagining according to the taste of an audience and the faculty of the trouvère. A boundless mediaeval literature of poetic legend and romantic fiction s
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CHAPTER XXIV
CHAPTER XXIV
PARZIVAL, THE BRAVE MAN SLOWLY WISE The instances of romantic chivalry and courtly love reviewed in the last chapter exemplify ideals of conduct in some respects opposed to Christian ethics. But there is still a famous poem of chivalry in which the romantic ideal has gained in ethical consideration and achieved a hard-won agreement with the teachings of mediaeval Christianity, and yet has not become monkish or lost its knightly character. This poem told of a struggle toward wisdom and toward pea
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THE MEDIAEVAL MIND
THE MEDIAEVAL MIND
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited London · Bombay · Calcutta Melbourne THE MACMILLAN COMPANY New York · Boston · Chicago Atlanta · San Francisco THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO THE MEDIAEVAL MIND A HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND EMOTION IN THE MIDDLE AGES BY HENRY OSBORN TAYLOR IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. II MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON 1911 ( Continued )...
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CHAPTER XXV
CHAPTER XXV
THE HEART OF HELOÏSE The romantic growth and imaginative shaping of chivalric love having been followed in the fortunes of its great exemplars, Tristan, Iseult, Lancelot, Guinevere, Parzival, a different illustration of mediaeval passion may be had by turning from these creations of literature to an actual woman, whose love for a living man was thought out as keenly and as tragically felt as any heart-break of imagined lovers, and was impressed with as entire a self-surrender as ever ravished th
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CHAPTER XXVI
CHAPTER XXVI
GERMAN CONSIDERATIONS: WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE A criticism of the world of feudalism, chivalry, and love may be had from the impressions and temperamental reactions of a certain thinking atom revolving in the same. The atom referred to was Walther von der Vogelweide, a German, a knight, a Minnesinger, and a national poet whose thoughts were moved by the instincts of his caste and race. In language, temperament, and character, the Germans east of the Rhine were Germans still in the thirteenth
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CHAPTER XXVII
CHAPTER XXVII
SCRIPTURAL ALLEGORIES IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES; HONORIUS OF AUTUN Words, pictures, and other vehicles of expression are symbols of whatever they are intended to designate. A certain unavoidable symbolism also inheres in human mental processes; for the mind in knowing “turns itself to images,” as Aquinas says following Aristotle; and every statement or formulation is a casting together of data in some presentable and representative form. An example is the Apostles’ Creed, called also by this very
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CHAPTER XXVIII
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE RATIONALE OF THE VISIBLE WORLD: HUGO OF ST. VICTOR Just as the Middle Ages followed the allegorical interpretation of Scripture elaborated by the Church Fathers, so they also accepted, and even made more precise, the patristic inculcation of the efficacy of such most potent symbols as the water of baptism and the bread and wine transubstantiated in the Eucharist. [60] Passing onward from these mighty bases of conviction, the mediaeval genius made fertile use of allegory in the polemics of Ch
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CHAPTER XXIX
CHAPTER XXIX
CATHEDRAL AND MASS; HYMN AND IMAGINATIVE POEM I. Guilelmus Durandus and Vincent of Beauvais. II. The Hymns of Adam of St. Victor and the Anticlaudianus of Alanus of Lille. Under sanction of Scriptural interpretation and the sacraments, allegory and symbolism became accepted principles of spiritual verity, sources of political argument, and modes of transcendental truth. They penetrated the Liturgy, charging every sentence and ceremonial act with saving significance and power; and as plastic infl
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CHAPTER XXX
CHAPTER XXX
THE SPELL OF THE CLASSICS I. Classical Reading. II. Grammar. III. The Effect upon the Mediaeval Man; Hildebert of Lavardin. I During all the mediaeval centuries, men approached the Classics expecting to learn from them. The usual attitude toward the classical heritage was that of docile pupils looking for instruction. One may recall the antecedent reasons of this, which have already been stated at length. In Italy, letters survived as the most impressive legacy from an overshadowing past. In t
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CHAPTER XXXI
CHAPTER XXXI
EVOLUTION OF MEDIAEVAL LATIN PROSE Classical antiquity lay far back of the mediaeval period, while in the nearer background pressed the centuries of transition, the time of the Church Fathers. The patristic material and a crude knowledge of the antique passed over to the early Middle Ages. Mediaeval progress was to consist, very largely, in the mastery and appropriation of the one and the other. The varied illustration of these propositions has filled a large portion of this work. In this and th
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CHAPTER XXXII
CHAPTER XXXII
EVOLUTION OF MEDIAEVAL LATIN VERSE I. Metrical Verse. II. Substitution of Accent for Quantity. III. Sequence-Hymn and Student-Song. IV. Passage of Themes into the Vernacular. In mediaeval Latin poetry the endeavour to preserve a classical style and the irresistible tendency to evolve new forms are more palpably distinguishable than in the prose. For there is a visible parting of the ways between the retention of the antique metres and their fruitful abandonment in verses built of accentual rhyme
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CHAPTER XXXIII
CHAPTER XXXIII
MEDIAEVAL APPROPRIATION OF THE ROMAN LAW I. The Fontes Juris Civilis. II. Roman and Barbarian Codification. III. The Mediaeval Appropriation. IV. Church Law. V. Political Theorizing. Classical studies, and the gradual development of mediaeval prose and verse, discussed in the preceding chapters, illustrate modes of mediaeval progress. But of all examples of mediaeval intellectual growth through the appropriation of the antique, none is more completely illuminating than the mediaeval use of Roman
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CHAPTER XXXIV
CHAPTER XXXIV
SCHOLASTICISM: SPIRIT, SCOPE, AND METHOD The religious philosophy or theology of the Middle Ages is commonly called scholasticism, and its exponents are called the scholastics. The name applies most properly to the respectable academic thinkers. These, in the early Middle Ages, usually were monks living in monasteries, like St. Anselm, for instance, who was Abbot of Bec in Normandy before, to his sorrow, he was made Archbishop of Canterbury. In the thirteenth century, however, while these respec
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CHAPTER XXXV
CHAPTER XXXV
CLASSIFICATION OF TOPICS; STAGES OF EVOLUTION I. Philosophic Classification of the Sciences; the Arrangement of Vincent’s Encyclopaedia, of the Lombard’s Sentences , of Aquinas’s Summa theologiae . II. The Stages of Development: Grammar, Logic, Metalogics. I Having considered the spirit, the field, and the dual method, of mediaeval thought, there remain its classifications of topics. The problem of classification presented itself to Gerbert as one involved in the rational study of the ancient
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CHAPTER XXXVI
CHAPTER XXXVI
TWELFTH-CENTURY SCHOLASTICISM I. The Problem of Universals: Abaelard. II. The Mystic Strain: Hugo and Bernard. III. The Later Decades: Bernard Silvestris; Gilbert de la Porrée; William of Conches; John of Salisbury, and Alanus of Lille. I From the somewhat elaborate general considerations which have occupied the last two chapters, we turn to the representative manifestations of mediaeval thought in the twelfth century. These belong in part to the second or “logical,” and in part to the third o
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CHAPTER XXXVII
CHAPTER XXXVII
THE UNIVERSITIES, ARISTOTLE, AND THE MENDICANTS Intellectually, the thirteenth century in western Europe is marked by three closely connected phenomena: the growth of Universities, the discovery and appropriation of Aristotle, and the activities of Dominicans and Franciscans. These movements were universal, in that the range of none of them was limited by racial or provincial boundaries. Yet a line may still be drawn between Italy, where law and medicine were cultivated, and the North, where the
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CHAPTER XXXVIII
CHAPTER XXXVIII
BONAVENTURA The range and character of the ultimate intellectual interests of the thirteenth century may be studied in the works of four men: St. Bonaventura, Albertus Magnus and St. Thomas, and lastly, Roger Bacon. The first and last were as different as might be; and both were Franciscans. Albertus and Thomas represent the successive stages of one achievement, the greatest in the course of mediaeval thought. In some respects, their position is intermediate between Bonaventura and Bacon. Bonave
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CHAPTER XXXIX
CHAPTER XXXIX
ALBERTUS MAGNUS Albert the Great was prodigious in the mass of his accomplishment. Therein lay his importance for the age he lived in; therein lies his interest for us. For him, substantial philosophy, as distinguished from the instrumental rôle of logic, had three parts, set by nature, rather than devised by man; they are physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. “It is our intention,” says Albert at the beginning of his exposition of Aristotle’s Physics , “to make all the said parts intelligible
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CHAPTER XL
CHAPTER XL
THOMAS AQUINAS I. Thomas’s Conception of Human Beatitude. II. Man’s Capacity to know God. III. How God knows. IV. How the Angels know. V. How Men know. VI. Knowledge through Faith perfected in Love. I With Albert it seemed most illuminating to outline the masses of his work of Aristotelian purveyorship and inchoate reconstruction of the Christian encyclopaedia in conformity with the new philosophy. Such a treatment will not avail for Thomas. His achievement, even measured by its bulk, was as g
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CHAPTER XLI
CHAPTER XLI
ROGER BACON Of all mediaeval men, Thomas Aquinas achieved the most organic and comprehensive union of the results of human reasoning and the data of Christian theology. He may be regarded as the final exponent of scholasticism, perfected in method, universal in scope, and still integral in purpose. The scholastic method was soon to be impugned and the scholastic universality broken. The premature attack upon the method came from Roger Bacon; [615] the fatal breach in the scholastic wholeness res
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CHAPTER XLII
CHAPTER XLII
DUNS SCOTUS AND OCCAM The thirteenth century was a time of potent Church unity, when the papacy, triumphant over emperors and kings, was drawing further strength from the devotion of the two Orders, who were renewing the spiritual energies of Western Christendom. Scholasticism was still whole and unbroken, in spite of Roger Bacon, who attacked its methods with weapons of his own forging, yet asserting loudly the single-eyed subservience of all the sciences to theology. This assertion from a man
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CHAPTER XLIII
CHAPTER XLIII
THE MEDIAEVAL SYNTHESIS: DANTE It lies before us to draw the lines of mediaeval development together. We have been considering the Middle Ages very largely, endeavouring to fix in mind the more interesting of their intellectual and emotional phenomena. We have found throughout a certain spiritual homogeneity; but have also seen that the mediaeval period of western Europe is not to be forced to a fictitious unity of intellectual and emotional quality—contradicted by a disparity of traits and inte
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