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The Truth Of Christianity

W. H. (William Harry) Turton

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THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY

THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY

THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY BEING AN Examination of the More Important Arguments For and Against Believing in that Religion COMPILED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES BY Lt.-Col. W. H. TURTON, D.S.O. LATE ROYAL ENGINEERS NINTH EDITION FORTIETH THOUSAND ( Carefully revised throughout ) LONDON WELLS GARDNER, DARTON &amp; CO., LTD. 3 AND 4, PATERNOSTER BUILDINGS, E.C. AND 44, VICTORIA STREET, S.W. 1919 LONDON WELLS GARDNER, DARTON &amp; CO., LTD. 3 AND 4, PATERNOSTER BUILDINGS, E.C. AND 44, VICTORIA STREE

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PREFACE TO NINTH EDITION.

PREFACE TO NINTH EDITION.

I have again carefully revised the whole book. Some additions have been made here and there, especially in Chapter XIX. ; but as a rule the alterations have been merely to shorten and condense the arguments where this could be done without spoiling them, and to simplify the language as much as possible. The book is thus shorter, and I hope simpler than any previous edition. Another slight improvement, which will commend itself to most purchasers, is reducing the price to 2s. net. The work, as be

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PART I. NATURAL RELIGION.

PART I. NATURAL RELIGION.

( A. ) The Origin of the Universe. Explanation of the universe, its origin, a Free Force. (1.) The Philosophical Argument. If the universe had not an origin, all events must have occurred before, and this seems incredible. (2.) The Scientific Argument. From the process of evolution and the degradation of energy. ( B. ) The Creator of the Universe. The Single Supernatural Cause, which originated it. It is proposed in this Essay to consider the reasons for and against believing in the truth of Chr

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(A.) The Origin of the Universe.

(A.) The Origin of the Universe.

Now by the universe is meant the material universe, which includes everything that exists (earth, sun, stars, and all they contain), with the exception of immaterial or spiritual beings, if there are any such. And by this universe having had an origin is meant that it was at some time acted on by a Free Force, that is to say, by a force which does not always act the same under the same circumstances, but which can act or not as it pleases. No doubt such a force would be totally different from al

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(B.) The Creator of the Universe.

(B.) The Creator of the Universe.

We have next to consider what else we can ascertain in regard to this First Cause. To begin with it can scarcely be disputed at the present day that it was a Single Cause, as modern science has completely established the unity which pervades the universe. We know for instance that the same materials are used everywhere, many of the elements which exist on this earth being also found in the sun and stars. Then there is the force of gravity, which is all-embracing, and applies equally to the most

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(A.) Evidence of Design.

(A.) Evidence of Design.

Passing on now to the evidence of design, this is of the most varied kind, especially throughout organic nature, where we find countless objects, which seem to point to the foresight of the Cause which produced them. The evidence is indeed so vast that it is difficult to deal with it satisfactorily. Perhaps the best way will be to follow the well-known watch argument of Paley, first showing by the example of a watch what it is that constitutes marks of design; next, how a single organ, say the h

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(B.) The Evolution Objection.

(B.) The Evolution Objection.

The first objection is that the whole of nature has been brought about in accordance with fixed laws by the process of Evolution . Therefore, though it is possible the Creator may have foreseen everything that exists; yet the apparent marks of design in nature, being all the necessary results of these laws, do not afford any evidence that He actually did so. And before discussing this objection we must first consider what we mean by laws of nature and natural forces. Now by a law of nature is me

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(C.) The Free Will Objection.

(C.) The Free Will Objection.

We have, lastly, to consider the other, and more important objection, that arising from Free Will . Why, it is urged, may not all organisms in nature have possessed free will within certain limits, and have selected those forms which suited them best? For example, referring to the case of a watch, if telling the time were of any advantage to the watch itself, and if the spring, wheels, and hands possessed free will; then it might be thought that they had formed themselves into that arrangement w

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(A.) Meaning of the term God.

(A.) Meaning of the term God.

Now any being who is able to design we will call a personal being . And God is the name given to the Personal Being who designed and created the universe. But it ought to be noticed, before we pass on, that the term personal being is also applied to man , and is said by many writers to involve the three ideas of thought , desire , and will . But these seem to be all included in design; for if I design anything, I must first of all think of it, then wish it, and then accomplish it. We will examin

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(B.) Two of God's Attributes.

(B.) Two of God's Attributes.

We must next notice somewhat carefully two of God's attributes, Wisdom and Power . Both of these are involved in the idea of a Personal Being able to design. For design , as used in this Essay, means originating or freely doing anything, as well as previously planning it. Therefore, if we use the word, as is often done, for planning alone, we must remember that a personal being is one who can both design and accomplish. The former implies a mind able to form some plan, and the latter a free forc

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(C.) The Objection that God is Unknowable.

(C.) The Objection that God is Unknowable.

We must lastly consider an important objection which may be made to the whole of these chapters. It may be said that the human mind is unable to argue about the First Cause , because we have no faculties for comprehending the Infinite; or, as it is commonly expressed, because God is Unknowable . Now this objection is partly true. There is a sense in which all will admit that God is Unknowable. His existence and attributes are too great for any human mind to comprehend entirely, or for any human

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(D.) Summary of Argument.

(D.) Summary of Argument.

In conclusion, we will repeat very briefly, the main line of argument thus far. To begin with, in the present universe we observe a succession of changes. If these changes are not recurring, which seems incredible, they must have had a commencement; and this is supported by the theories of Evolution and the Degradation of Energy. Therefore, as this commencement cannot have been a necessity, it must have been due to some Free Force . And a Free Force must be a Supernatural Force, since natural fo

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(A.) Man's Mental Attributes.

(A.) Man's Mental Attributes.

By these are meant man's thoughts and feelings, and that they are different from the matter composing his body seems self-evident. Matter possesses size, weight, colour, shape, and hardness. Mind does not possess any of these. They have no conceivable meaning when applied to thoughts and feelings. Yet both mind and matter exist in man. We each feel conscious that we have something which thinks , and which we call mind; as well as something which moves , and which we call matter ( i.e. , our bodi

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(B.) Man's Moral Attributes.

(B.) Man's Moral Attributes.

We pass on now to man's moral attributes, which we will consider in detail. In the first place man possesses what, in common language, is called a will . Strictly speaking, of course, the will is not anything independent of the man, which he possesses , as he might possess a dog; it is the man himself who wills , or who possesses the power of willing. But the common language is so generally understood, that it will be used here. Now the chief reason for believing that man has a will is his own i

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(C.) Difference Between Animals and Men.

(C.) Difference Between Animals and Men.

Now the bodily difference between certain animals and men is admittedly small; and though the accompanying mental difference is enormous, it is probably only one of degree; for all animals seem, to some slight extent, to possess a mind, which enables them at least to feel conscious of pleasure and pain. We must therefore pass on to the moral attributes of animals; and as we know nothing as to their feelings on the subject, it is difficult to say (referring to the first three points) whether they

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(D.) Conclusion.

(D.) Conclusion.

We may now conclude this chapter. With regard to man, it is clear that his bodily, mental, and moral attributes are quite distinct. A man may be strong in body, yet of weak intellectual power; or he may have a great intellect, yet be of weak moral character. This makes it probable that human nature consists of three parts— body , mind , and spirit ; the mind corresponding to the mental reasoning part of man, and the spirit to the free moral part, the word soul being often used for either of thes

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(A.) The Evidence in its Favour.

(A.) The Evidence in its Favour.

To begin with, God is certainly capable of taking an interest in man's welfare, for He is not only a Personal Being, but also a Moral Being. This follows at once from what may be called the moral argument for the Existence of God, or that depending on man's free will. It is briefly this, that no combination of natural forces, which are uniform and always act the same under the same circumstances, can ever produce a free force, able to act or not as it likes. The idea seems inconceivable. If, the

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(B.) The Insignificance of Man.

(B.) The Insignificance of Man.

The first is from the apparent insignificance of man. For though he is doubtless by far the most important being on this planet, and endowed with some of the Divine attributes, yet, after all how utterly insignificant he is in comparison with his Maker. This is no new difficulty, [4] but modern science has increased its force by showing that our earth is only one among the planets which go round the sun, while the sun itself is only one among many millions of stars. And, we may ask, is it likely

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(C.) The Existence of Evil.

(C.) The Existence of Evil.

We now come to the other, and perhaps more important, difficulty—that arising from the existence of evil . This term in its widest sense includes both pain , which affects a man's body; sorrow , which affects his mind; and sin , which affects his spirit. The two former may be called physical evil , and apply also to animals; while the latter is moral evil , and applies only to man. And as the world is full of pain, sorrow, and sin, one may naturally ask how could it have been designed and create

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(D.) Conclusion.

(D.) Conclusion.

We may now sum up the argument in this chapter. We first showed that God is not only able to take an interest in man's welfare; but that the marks of beneficent design afford abundant evidence that He actually does so. On the other hand, the so-called insignificance of man is more apparent than real, since his position at the end of evolution shows his great importance; while his mind and spirit fully account for this, and prove him to be an altogether unique being, certainly in regard to this e

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(A.) The Immortality of Man.

(A.) The Immortality of Man.

By this is meant the immortality of man's spirit . And if we admit (as was admitted in IV. ) that man is a compound being, consisting of a free and partly supernatural spirit, his real self , which controls his body and mind; what becomes of this spirit at death? We know what becomes of the body: the various molecules are arranged in other groups, and the natural forces are changed into other natural forces. Nothing is lost or annihilated. But what becomes of the spirit? If this is a free supern

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(B.) The Probability of a Revelation.

(B.) The Probability of a Revelation.

Now (assuming man to be immortal) a revelation, from whichever side we regard it, appears to be somewhat probable . For God is a Being, Who seems likely to make a revelation; and man is a being exactly fitted to receive one; so we will consider these points first, and then the chief difficulties. Now we have already shown that God takes an interest in man's welfare, being not only beneficent, but righteous ; and that He apparently wishes to train and develop man's character, so that he may be ri

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(A.) Superhuman Signs.

(A.) Superhuman Signs.

These include, to begin with, superhuman knowledge , which can be afterwards verified, such as prophecy . And there is no difficulty here, provided we admit a revelation at all. The only possible objection refers to prophecies regarding human conduct; which it may be said would interfere with man's freedom. But this is only part of the more general objection that any foreknowledge on God's part would interfere with man's freedom, which we have already considered in Chapter II. ; and there is no

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(B.) Supernatural Signs.

(B.) Supernatural Signs.

We pass on now to supernatural signs or Miracles in the strict sense; which we will define as marvels specially worked by God as signs to confirm a revelation . This definition has, of course, been chosen so as to suit the miracles recorded in the Bible, and it is really threefold. In the first place, a miracle is described as to its outward appearance . It is a marvel—that is to say, a strange and unusual event, which we cannot account for, and which thus attracts attention. Secondly, it is des

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PART II. THE JEWISH RELIGION.

PART II. THE JEWISH RELIGION.

( A. ) Its General Principles. (1.) Its pure Monotheism; admittedly true. (2.) Its seven days need not be taken literally. (3.) Its gradual development; admittedly true. ( B. ) Its Detailed Order. (1.) The earliest state of the earth. (2.) Light. (3.) The Firmament. (4.) Dry Land. (5.) Vegetation. (6.) The Sun and Moon. (7.) Fishes and Birds. (8.) Land Animals. (9.) Man. ( C. ) Conclusion. The accuracy of the narrative points to its having been Divinely revealed. (6.) The Sun and Moon. (7.) Fish

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(A.) Its General Principles.

(A.) Its General Principles.

The most important of these are its pure Monotheism, its seven days, and its gradual development, each of which we will notice in turn. This alone renders it almost, if not quite, unique among similar narratives. According to the writer, the whole universe, including sun, moon, and stars, was all due to one God. And this is obvious enough now, but it was not so when the narrative was written. For other ancient accounts are either Pantheistic , and confuse God with the universe; or Dualistic , an

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(B.) Its Detailed Order.

(B.) Its Detailed Order.

It will be remembered that in Genesis, after describing the earliest state of the earth, there are eight stages in its development; two of which occurred on the third, and two on the sixth, day. We have thus altogether nine subjects to examine. Now according to Genesis, the earth was at first waste and void and in darkness , and apparently surrounded by the waters . And if we adopt the usual nebula theory, and refer this to the first period after it became a separate planet, and had cooled so as

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(C.) Conclusion.

(C.) Conclusion.

We have now discussed the narrative at some length, and (omitting details) it shows three great periods of life. Each of these has a leading characteristic; that of the third day being vegetation; that of the fifth day fishes and birds, special mention being made of great sea-monsters; and that of the sixth day land animals, and at its close man. And though these groups overlap to a large extent, yet speaking broadly, the three periods in Geology have much the same characteristics. The Primary i

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(A.) Its Egyptian References.

(A.) Its Egyptian References.

Now a considerable part of the Pentateuch deals with Egyptian matters, and it appears to be written with correct details throughout. This would of course be only natural in a contemporary writer living in Egypt, but would be most unlikely for a late writer in Canaan. The question is therefore of great importance in deciding on the date of the book; so we will first consider these Egyptian references (as they are called) in the history of Joseph, then in that of Moses, and then in the laws and ad

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(B.) Its Laws.

(B.) Its Laws.

We pass on now to the Laws of the Pentateuch, which are found in the middle of Exodus, and occupy the greater part of the remaining books. And as we shall see, they also (quite apart from their references to Egypt) bear strong marks of a contemporary origin. In the first place several of the laws refer exclusively to the time when the Israelites lived in the desert , and would have been of no use whatever after they settled in Canaan. Among these are the laws regarding the camp and order of marc

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(C.) The Theory of a Late Date.

(C.) The Theory of a Late Date.

We pass on now to the opposite theory, or that of a late date . According to this the Pentateuch, though no doubt containing older traditions, and fragments of older documents, was not written till many centuries after the death of Moses. And the four chief arguments in its favour are based on the language of the Pentateuch, its composite character , its laws being unknown in later times, and the finding of Deuteronomy in the reign of Josiah. We will examine each in turn. Now in general characte

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(D.) Conclusion.

(D.) Conclusion.

Having thus shown that the Pentateuch appears to date from the time of Moses, it only remains to consider its authorship, and the witness it bears to the miracles of the Exodus. Now that the greater part should have been written by Moses himself is plainly the most probable view. And this is strongly confirmed by the book itself; for a large part of it distinctly claims to have been written by Moses. It is not merely that this title is given in a heading, or opening verse, which might easily hav

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(A.) The Later Old Testament Books.

(A.) The Later Old Testament Books.

Now, the arguments for, and against the genuineness of these Books need not be discussed at length, since we have already decided in favour of that of the Pentateuch, and most critics who admit the one, admit the other. But a few remarks may be made on three subjects, those of undesigned agreements , the importance of which is not obvious at first sight; the alleged mistakes in the Old Testament; and the effect of modern discoveries . Now, if we find two statements regarding an event, or series

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(B.) The Old Testament Miracles.

(B.) The Old Testament Miracles.

We will include under this term superhuman coincidences as well as miracles in the strict sense; and they occur all through the historical books of the Old Testament. A few of them have been already noticed in the last chapter, but we must now discuss them more fully, first considering whether they are credible, and then whether they are true. Now this can scarcely be disputed, provided miracles at all are credible , which we have already admitted, since scientific difficulties affect all miracl

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(A.) General Prophecies.

(A.) General Prophecies.

We will consider the General Prophecies first, the most important of which concern the Jews themselves, and their great neighbours Assyria and Babylonia, on the one hand, and Egypt on the other. All these nations had existed for centuries, and there was nothing to indicate what was to be their future; yet the prophets foretold it, and with remarkable accuracy. And first as to Assyria and Babylonia. The future of these countries was to be utter desolation . The kingdoms were to be destroyed, the

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(B.) Special Prophecies.

(B.) Special Prophecies.

We pass on now to the Special Prophecies. These are found all through the Old Testament, the following being eight of the most important. The fact that David's throne should always be held by his descendants, i.e. , till the captivity, about 450 years; [139] and its fulfilment is specially remarkable when contrasted with the rival kingdom of Samaria, where the dynasty changed eight or nine times in 250 years. [139] 2 Sam. 7. 12-16; 1 Kings 9. 4, 5. The division of the kingdom into ten and two tr

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(C.) Conclusion.

(C.) Conclusion.

In concluding this chapter, we must notice the cumulative nature of the evidence. The prophecies we have referred to, like the miracles in the last chapter, are but specimens, a few out of many which might be given. This is very important, and its bearing on our present argument is naturally twofold. In the first place, it does not increase, and in some respects rather decreases, the difficulty of believing them to be true, for thirty miracles or prophecies, provided they occur on suitable occas

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(A.) The Existence of Angels.

(A.) The Existence of Angels.

Now the Old Testament always takes for granted the existence and influence of angels, yet at the present day this is often thought to be a difficulty. But as to the mere existence of angels, there is no difficulty whatever. For the whole analogy of nature would teach us that since there are numerous beings in the scale of life below man, so there would be some beings above man—that is to say, between him and the Supreme Being. And this is rendered still more probable when we reflect on the small

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(B.) The Character of God.

(B.) The Character of God.

We pass on now to the Character ascribed to God in the Old Testament, first considering its difficulties, under the three heads of its partiality , its human element , and its moral defects ; and then what can be said on the other side as to its general excellence . The objection here is that God is the just God of all mankind, and it is therefore incredible that He should have selected a single nation like the Jews to be His special favourites, more particularly as His alleged attempt to make t

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(C.) Conclusion.

(C.) Conclusion.

Before concluding this chapter, we must notice four arguments of a more general character; all of which are undisputed, and all of which are distinctly in favour of the Jewish Religion. The first is that the Jews are all descended from one man , Abraham. They have always maintained this themselves, and there seems no reason to doubt it. Yet it is very remarkable. There are now about sixteen hundred million persons in the world, and if there were at the time of Abraham (say) one million men ( i.e

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PART III. THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

PART III. THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

By the Christian Religion is meant the Three Creeds, its four great doctrines. ( A. ) The Trinity. (1.) Its meaning; Three Persons in One Nature. (2.) Its credibility; this must be admitted. (3.) Its probability more likely than simple Theism. ( B. ) The Incarnation. (1.) Its difficulties; not insuperable. (2.) Its motive; God, it is said, loves man, and wishes man to love Him, not improbable for several reasons. (3.) Its historical position. ( C. ) The Atonement. The common objections do not ap

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(A.) The Trinity.

(A.) The Trinity.

To begin with, the Christian religion differs from all others in its idea of the nature of God. According to Christianity, the Deity exists in some mysterious manner as a Trinity of Persons in a Unity of Nature ; so we will first consider the meaning of this doctrine, then its credibility, and lastly its probability. It is not, as some people suppose, a kind of intellectual puzzle, but a statement which, whether true or false, is fairly intelligible, provided, of course, due attention is given t

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(B.) The Incarnation.

(B.) The Incarnation.

We next come to the doctrine of the Incarnation; which however is so clearly stated in the Athanasian Creed, that its meaning is quite plain. God the Son, we are told, the second Person of the Trinity, was pleased to become Man and to be born of the Virgin Mary, so that He is now both God and Man . He is God (from all eternity) of the Substance or Nature of His Divine Father, and Man (since the Incarnation) of the Substance or Nature of His human Mother. He is thus complete God and complete Man;

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(C.) The Atonement.

(C.) The Atonement.

We pass on now to the doctrine of the Atonement, which is that Christ's death was in some sense a sacrifice for sin, and thus reconciled (or made 'at-one') God the Father and sinful man. And though not actually stated in the Creeds, it is implied in the words, Was crucified also for us , and Who suffered for our salvation . The chief difficulty is of course on moral grounds. The idea of atonement, it is said, or of one man being made to suffer as a substitute for another, and thus appeasing the

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(D.) The Resurrection.

(D.) The Resurrection.

The last great Christian doctrine is that of the Resurrection. According to Christianity, all men are to rise again, with their bodies partly changed and rendered incorruptible; and the Resurrection of Christ's Body was both a pledge of this, and also to some extent an example of what a risen body would be like. He was thus, as the Bible says, the firstborn from the dead. [179] Now this word firstborn implies, to begin with, that none had been so born before, the cases of Lazarus, etc., being th

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(E.) Conclusion.

(E.) Conclusion.

We have now examined the four great doctrines of Christianity, the others either following directly from these, or not presenting any difficulty. And though, as we have shown, not one of these doctrines can be pronounced incredible , yet some of them, especially those of the Incarnation and the Atonement, certainly seem improbable . This must be fully and freely admitted. At the same time, it is only fair to remember that this improbability is distinctly lessened by the three following considera

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(A.) The Undisputed Testimony.

(A.) The Undisputed Testimony.

Passing on now to the testimony of early writers; we need not begin later than the end of the second century; since it is admitted by everyone that our Four Gospels were then well known. They were continually quoted by Christian writers; they were universally ascribed to the authors we now ascribe them to; and they were always considered to be in some sense divinely inspired. As this is undisputed, we need not discuss the evidence; but one writer deserves to be mentioned, which is Irenæus , Bish

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(B.) The almost Undisputed Testimony.

(B.) The almost Undisputed Testimony.

We next come to the testimony of some earlier writers, which was formerly much disputed, but is now admitted by nearly all critics. By far the most important of these is Justin Martyr ; whose works—two Apologies (or books written in defence of Christianity) and a Dialogue —date from about A.D. 145-50. He was no ordinary convert, but a philosopher, and says that before he became a Christian, he studied various philosophical systems and found them unsatisfactory; so we may be sure that he did not

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(C.) The Disputed Testimony.

(C.) The Disputed Testimony.

We pass on now to the testimony of still earlier writers, all of which is more or less disputed by some critics. And first as to Papias. He was bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor (about a hundred miles from Ephesus) early in the second century; and only a few fragments of his writings have been preserved by Irenæus and Eusebius. We learn from the former that he was a disciple of St. John and a companion of Polycarp; and considering that Irenæus was himself Polycarp's pupil, there is no reason to

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(A.) The First Three Gospels.

(A.) The First Three Gospels.

In dealing with these Gospels, we will first consider their general accuracy, then their sources, and then their probable date. It is now admitted by everyone that the writers show a thorough acquaintance with Palestine both as to its geography, history, and people, especially the political and social state of the country in the half-century preceding the fall of Jerusalem ( A.D. 70). The Jewish historian Josephus, who wrote about A.D. 95, gives us a vivid description of this; and everything we

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(B.) The Fourth Gospel.

(B.) The Fourth Gospel.

We pass on now to the Fourth Gospel, and will first examine the internal arguments as to its authorship, which are strongly in favour of its being the work of St. John; and then the two arguments on the opposite side, said to be derived from its connection with the other Gospels, and the Book of Revelation. To begin with, the writer appears to have lived in the first century . This is probable from his intimate acquaintance with Jerusalem, and as before said that city was only a heap of ruins af

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(A.) Its Accuracy.

(A.) Its Accuracy.

Now, this book, unlike the Gospels, deals with a large number of public men and places, many of which are well known from secular history, while inscriptions referring to others have been recently discovered. It is thus liable to be detected at every step if inaccurate; yet, with the doubtful exception of the date of the rebellion of Theudas, and some details as to the death of Herod Agrippa, no error can be discovered. As this is practically undisputed, we need not discuss the evidence in detai

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(B.) Its Authorship.

(B.) Its Authorship.

Now if we admit the general accuracy of the book, there is little difficulty in deciding on its authorship . As is well known, certain portions of it (describing some of St. Paul's travels, including his voyage to Italy) are written in the first person plural, and are commonly called the " We " sections. [256] This shows that the writer was a companion of St. Paul at that time; and then the great similarity in language , between these sections and the rest of the book, shows that they had the sa

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(C.) Its Date.

(C.) Its Date.

The date of the book can also be fixed with tolerable certainty. It is implied in its abrupt ending. The last thing it narrates is St. Paul's living at Rome, two years before his expected trial ( A.D. 58-60). [263] It says nothing about this trial, nor of St. Paul's release, nor of his subsequent travels, nor of his second trial and martyrdom (probably under Nero, A.D. 64); though had it been written after these events, it could hardly have failed to record them. This is especially the case as t

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(A.) Its Importance.

(A.) Its Importance.

In the first place, we cannot overestimate the importance of the Resurrection, for this fact, either real or supposed, was the foundation of Christianity. This is plain not only from the Gospels, but still more from the Acts, where we have numerous short speeches by the Apostles, given under various circumstances, and to various audiences, including Jewish Councillors, Greek philosophers, and Roman governors. And in nearly all of them the Resurrection of Christ is not only positively asserted, b

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(B.) The Narratives.

(B.) The Narratives.

Now we have five different accounts of the Resurrection; and these are so thoroughly independent that not one of them can be regarded as the source of any of the others. Little stress, however, can be laid on the latter part of St. Mark's account, as the genuineness of the last twelve verses is doubtful; but it anyhow represents a very early Christian belief, Aristion being sometimes named as the author. And even the earlier part is conclusive as to the empty tomb, and the promised appearance in

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(C.) Their Difficulties.

(C.) Their Difficulties.

Passing on now to the difficulties in the narratives; they may be conveniently placed under the two heads of discrepancies and omissions . These seem to be chiefly due to two of the Evangelists, St. Mark and St. Luke, recording separate appearances as if they were continuous. But it so happens that they do much the same in the rest of their Gospels, often recording separate sayings of Christ as if they were one discourse; and even in closely-connected passages a break has sometimes to be assumed

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(D.) Their Truthfulness.

(D.) Their Truthfulness.

Turning now to the other side, the narratives bear abundant marks of truthfulness. These we will consider under the three heads of agreements , mutual explanations , and signs of early date . In the first place it is important to notice that in spite of the discrepancies and omissions just alluded to, there is an extraordinary amount of agreement in the narratives. For all the more important points—the third day, the empty tomb, the visit of the women, the angelic message, the first appearance b

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(A.) The Falsehood Theory.

(A.) The Falsehood Theory.

We will begin with the Falsehood Theory. This would be to deny the veracity of the witnesses, and say that though they asserted that Christ rose from the dead, and appeared to them, they did not really believe it. In other words they were deliberate impostors, who, knowing that their Master did not rise from the dead, yet spent their whole lives in trying to persuade people that He did. And, as we shall see, their motives , their conduct , and their sufferings , are all strongly opposed to such

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(B.) The Legend Theory.

(B.) The Legend Theory.

We pass on now to the Legend Theory. This would be to deny the knowledge of the witnesses: and say that our Gospels are not genuine, but merely record subsequent legends; so we cannot tell whether the first witnesses had, or had not, the means of knowing the truth. But if we admit the genuineness of our Gospels, and the veracity of their writers (both of which have been admitted), the Legend Theory is out of the question. They asserted, it will be remembered, that Christ's Body , not His Spirit,

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(C.) The Vision Theory.

(C.) The Vision Theory.

We now come to the Vision Theory. This would be to deny the investigation of the witnesses; and say that they were so excited, or so enthusiastic, or perhaps so stupid, that they did not avail themselves of the ample means they had of finding out the truth. In other words they so expected their Lord to appear to them after His death, and kept so dwelling on the thought of Him, as though unseen, yet perhaps very near to them, that after a time they fancied they actually saw Him, and that He had r

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(D.) The Swoon Theory.

(D.) The Swoon Theory.

Lastly we come to the Swoon Theory. This would be to deny the reasoning of the witnesses; and say that though they saw Christ alive after His Crucifixion, they did not draw the right conclusion in thinking that He had risen from the dead, since as a matter of fact He had never died, but had only fainted on the Cross. And in support of this, it is urged that death after crucifixion did not generally occur so quickly, since Pilate marvelled if He were already dead ; and that He might easily have b

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(E.) Conclusion.

(E.) Conclusion.

Before concluding this chapter a few remarks may be made on the alleged difficulties of the Christian theory. There are only two of any importance. The first is that the Resurrection would be a miracle , and probably nine out of ten men who disbelieve it, do so for this reason. It is not that the evidence for it is insufficient (they have perhaps never examined it) but that no conceivable evidence would be sufficient to establish such an event. Miracles, they say, are incredible, they cannot hap

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(A.) Their Credibility.

(A.) Their Credibility.

Now with one exception, the casting out of evil spirits, the miracles present scarcely any difficulty provided miracles at all are credible, which we have already admitted. Most of them, especially those of healing, were very suitable from a moral point of view, while that they were meant to confirm Christ's teaching and claims is beyond dispute. Not only do all the Evangelists declare this, but Christ Himself though He refused to work a miracle when challenged to do so—He would not work one to

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(B.) Their Truthfulness.

(B.) Their Truthfulness.

Now the testimony in favour of these miracles is very similar to that in favour of the Resurrection of Christ. They are recorded by the same writers and in the same books, and everything points to these accounts being trustworthy. To put it shortly, the writers had no motive for recording the miracles unless they believed them to be true, and they had ample means of finding out whether they were true or not; while many of them are such as cannot possibly be explained by want of investigation, or

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(C.) Their Publicity.

(C.) Their Publicity.

But the most important point has still to be noticed, which is the alleged publicity of these miracles; and as this renders the testimony in their favour peculiarly strong, we must examine it at some length. To begin with, according to our Gospels, all the miracles of Christ occurred during His public ministry , when He was well known, that at Cana being definitely called the first. [346] And as they were meant to confirm His teaching and claims, it was only natural for them to begin when His te

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(D.) Conclusion.

(D.) Conclusion.

In conclusion we must notice certain rationalistic explanations which have been given of the miracles. It was hardly to be expected that, with such strong evidence in their favour, the modern opponents of Christianity would merely assert that the accounts were pure fiction from beginning to end. Attempts have of course been made to explain the miracles in such a way that, while depriving them of any supernatural character, it may yet be admitted that some such events occurred, which gave rise to

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(A.) Isaiah's Prophecy of the Lord's Servant (52. 13-53. 12).

(A.) Isaiah's Prophecy of the Lord's Servant (52. 13-53. 12).

It may be pointed out at starting that no one denies the antiquity of the passage, even if it was not written by Isaiah. And it forms a complete whole, closely connected together and not mixed up with any other subject. So in regard to its fulfilment, most of the details mentioned occurred within a few hours. We will consider first the historical, and then the doctrinal agreement. With regard to this, the following is the translation from the Revised Version, together with the corresponding even

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(B.) The Psalm of the Crucifixion (Ps. 22).[380]

(B.) The Psalm of the Crucifixion (Ps. 22).[380]

[380] This is discussed more fully in an article in the Churchman , April, 1912, by the present writer. We pass on now to another most remarkable prophecy; for this well-known Psalm describes what can only be regarded as a crucifixion . The decisive verse is of course, They pierced my hands and my feet ; but even apart from this, the various sufferings described cannot all be endured in any other form of death, such as stoning or beheading. And the Psalm agrees with the Death of Christ, both in

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(C.) The Divinity of the Messiah.

(C.) The Divinity of the Messiah.

Our last example shall be of a different kind from the others. It is that the Old Testament contains several passages which show that the future Messiah was to be not only Superhuman, but Divine. And considering the strong Monotheism of the Jews this is very remarkable. The following are three of the most important:— 'For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given; and the government shall be upon his shoulder: and his name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, Everlasting Fath

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(D.) Conclusion.

(D.) Conclusion.

Before concluding this chapter there is still one objection to be considered. Why, it is said, if these prophecies really refer to Christ, are they not plainer? Surely if God wished to foretell the future, He would have done it better than this: and a few words added here and there would have made the reference to Christ indisputable. No doubt they would; but possibly God did not wish to make the reference indisputable. Moreover, if the prophecies had been plainer, they might have prevented thei

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(A.) The Teaching of Christ.

(A.) The Teaching of Christ.

Under this head, we will first notice the admitted excellence of Christ's teaching, then some objections which are often made, and lastly His sinlessness. To begin with, the excellence of Christ's moral teaching hardly needs to be insisted on at the present day, and rationalists as well as Christians have proclaimed its merits. For instance, to quote a few examples:— 'Religion cannot be said to have made a bad choice in pitching on this man as the ideal representative and guide of humanity; nor

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(B.) The Claims of Christ.

(B.) The Claims of Christ.

We pass on now to the claims of Christ; and His high moral character would plainly lead us to place the utmost confidence in what He said about Himself. And as we shall see He claimed to be both Superhuman and Divine ; and this is how all His contemporaries, both friends and foes, understood Him. And though it is impossible to add to the marvel of such claims, yet the fact that nothing in any way resembling them is to be found among the Jewish Prophets helps us, at least, to realise their unique

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(C.) The Great Alternative.

(C.) The Great Alternative.

We pass on now to the great alternative , which is forced upon us by combining the teaching and the claims of Christ. Before pointing out its importance we must notice a favourite method of trying to get out of the difficulty, which is by saying that the teaching of Christ occurs in the first three Gospels , and the claims in the Fourth ; so if we deny the accuracy of this single Gospel the difficulty is removed. But unfortunately for this objection, though the Divine claims occur chiefly in the

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(A.) Its Early Triumphs.

(A.) Its Early Triumphs.

Now it seems hard to exaggerate either the immense difficulties the religion had to overcome, or its marvellous success in overcoming them. In the first place, we must consider the immense difficulties of founding such a religion as Christianity. Our familiarity with the subject prevents us from fully realising this, so perhaps an analogy will help to make it clear. Suppose, then, that missionaries now appeared in the cities of Europe, in London and Edinburgh, for example, and preached that an o

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(B.) Its Later History.

(B.) Its Later History.

We pass on now from the early triumphs of Christianity to its later history, and will consider in turn its past vitality, its present effect, and its future prospects. To begin with, a strong argument in favour of Christianity is its vitality. It has survived in spite of external assaults and internal divisions; and its spread and continuity can only be satisfactorily accounted for by its truth. This is an argument the force of which increases as times goes on, and fresh difficulties are encount

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(C.) Conclusion.

(C.) Conclusion.

Before concluding this chapter one other point of some importance has to be noticed. It is that the early history of Christianity with its continual triumph amidst continual persecution, seems to have been foreknown to its Founder; as well as His own marvellous influence in the world. These prophecies of Christ concerning His own religion are certainly very striking. We find, on the one hand, a most absolute conviction as to the triumph of His Church. It was to spread far and wide; its missionar

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(A.) Christianity and Prayer.

(A.) Christianity and Prayer.

Now the Christian, in common with most other religions, asserts the value of prayer not only for obtaining what are called spiritual blessings, but also as a means of influencing natural events. Yet prayer with such an object is said by many to be scientifically incredible , morally wrong , and practically useless . So we will first glance at the universality of the custom, and then consider these difficulties. Now, prayer of some kind is, and always has been, the universal rule in almost every

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(B.) Christianity and Human Nature.

(B.) Christianity and Human Nature.

The next subject we have to consider is a very important one, the adaptation of Christianity to human nature. To begin with, it is undeniable that Christianity appeals very strongly to some, at least, among every class of men. The poor value it as much as the rich, the ignorant as much as the learned; children can partly understand it, and philosophers can do no more. And this is not only the case at the present time, but it has been so among all the changing conditions of society for eighteen c

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(C.) Christianity and other Religions.

(C.) Christianity and other Religions.

We have lastly to consider the relation in which Christianity stands to other religions; since an argument against Christianity is often drawn from their comparative study . In far more ancient religions, it is alleged, we find similar doctrines to those of the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Atonement, and the Resurrection; and this is fatal to the claim of Christianity to be the one and only true Religion. But as to the doctrine of the Trinity , it is really unique. Some other religions, it is t

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(A.) The Doctrine of the Trinity.

(A.) The Doctrine of the Trinity.

Now, although there are no statements in the New Testament identical with those in the Creed, yet the latter are merely logical deductions from the former. For the New Testament asserts that, besides God the Father, there are two other Divine Persons, Christ and the Holy Spirit, and yet but one God. This has already been discussed in Chapter XXI. , where we showed that Christ claimed to be not only Superhuman, but Divine; and that this is how His contemporaries, both friends and foes, understood

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(B.) The Final State of the Wicked.

(B.) The Final State of the Wicked.

We pass on now to what is perhaps the most difficult of all subjects, the final state of the wicked. The Creed asserts that all men are to rise again with their bodies, and be judged according to their works ; and that then, they that have done good shall go into life everlasting; and they that have done evil into everlasting fire . This latter expression can scarcely be taken literally, since it is associated in the Bible with another— the worm that dieth not —which cannot be literal, as worms

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(C.) The Importance of a True Belief.

(C.) The Importance of a True Belief.

The last doctrine to be considered is the importance of a True Belief, that is of believing the truth in regard to matters of religion. This is strongly insisted on in the warning clauses of the Athanasian Creed; so we will first consider their meaning, then their truthfulness, and lastly, the objection as to dogmatism. Before discussing this, it may be pointed out that they are often called the damnatory or uncharitable clauses; but both these terms are somewhat misleading. For the Creed does n

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(A.) The Evidences of Christianity.

(A.) The Evidences of Christianity.

Does not, it is urged, this very fact of itself form a difficulty? Can an ordinary man be expected to ponder over arguments, objections, and counter-arguments by the dozen, even supposing the balance of probability to be in favour of the Religion? Surely, if Christianity were true, and God wished men to believe it, there would not be so many difficulties. He would have provided an easier way of proving it than this; or, at all events, if this elaborate argument were examined, the inference in it

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(B.) Summary and Conclusion.

(B.) Summary and Conclusion.

It now only remains to give a summary of the previous chapters, and then point out the final choice of difficulties. In Chapter XIII. we considered the credibility of the Christian Religion, and decided that some of its leading doctrines, especially those of the Incarnation and the Atonement, seemed very improbable. All that can be said on the other side is practically this, that we have no adequate means of judging; and that when we apply similar reasoning to subjects about which we do know, su

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