Island Life; Or, The Phenomena And Causes Of Insular Faunas And Floras

1895

The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved Richard Clay and Sons, Limited, LONDON AND BUNGAY. First Edition printed 1880 (Med. 8vo). Second Edition 1892 (Extra cr. 8vo). Reprinted 1895. TO K.C.S.I., C.B., F.R.S., ETC., ETC....

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CORRECTIONS IN PRESENT ISSUE.

The first issue of this Edition being exhausted, the opportunity is taken of making a few corrections, the most important of which are here stated:— Page 163. Statement modified as to supposed glaciation of South Africa. Pages 174 and 338. Many geologists now hold that there was no great submergence during the glacial epoch. The passages referring to it have therefore been re-written. Page 182. Colonel Fielden's explanation of the occurrence of large trees on shores and in recent drift in high l

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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

This edition has been carefully revised throughout, and owing to the great increase to our knowledge of the Natural History of some of the islands during the last twelve years considerable additions or alterations have been required. The more important of these changes are the following:— Chapter VII. The account of the migrations of animals and plants during and since the Glacial Epoch, has been modified to accord with newer information. Chapters VIII and IX. The discussion of the causes of Gla

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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

The present volume is the result of four years' additional thought and research on the lines laid down in my Geographical Distribution of Animals , and may be considered as a popular supplement to and completion of that work. It is, however, at the same time a complete work in itself: and, from the mode of treatment adopted, it will, I hope, be well calculated to bring before the intelligent reader the wide scope and varied interest of this branch of natural history. Although some of the earlier

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY Remarkable Contrasts in the Distribution of Animals—Britain and Japan—Australia and New Zealand—Bali and Lombok—Florida and Bahama Islands—Brazil and Africa—Borneo, Madagascar, and Celebes—Problems in Distribution to be found in every Country—Can be Solved only by the Combination of many distinct lines of inquiry, Biological and Physical—Islands offer the best Subjects for the Study of Distribution—Outline of the Subjects to be discussed in the Present Volume. Pages 3 - 11...

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CHAPTER II

THE ELEMENTARY FACTS OF DISTRIBUTION. Importance of Locality as an Essential Character of Species—Areas of Distribution—Extent and Limitations of Specific Areas—Specific Range of Birds—Generic Areas—Separate and Overlapping Areas—The Species of Tits as illustrating Areas of Distribution—The Distribution of the Species of Jays—Discontinuous Generic Areas—Peculiarities of Generic and Family Distribution—General Features of Overlapping and Discontinuous Areas—Restricted Areas of Families—The Distri

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CHAPTER III

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FACTS OF DISTRIBUTION.—ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS The Geographical Divisions of the Globe do not Correspond to Zoological Divisions—The Range of British Mammals as Indicating a Zoological Region—Range of East Asian and North African Mammals—The Range of British Birds—Range of East Asian Birds—The Limits of the Palæarctic Region—Characteristic Features of the Palæarctic Region—Definition and Characteristic Groups of the Ethiopian Region—Of the Oriental Region—Of the Australian Regio

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CHAPTER IV

EVOLUTION AS THE KEY TO DISTRIBUTION Importance of the Doctrine of Evolution—The Origin of New Species—Variation in Animals—The amount of Variation in North American Birds—How New Species Arise from a Variable Species—Definition and Origin of Genera—Cause of the Extinction of Species—The Rise and Decay of Species and Genera—Discontinuous Specific Areas, why Rare—Discontinuity of the Area of Parus Palustris—Discontinuity of Emberiza Schœniclus—The European and Japanese Jays—Supposed examples of D

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CHAPTER V

THE POWERS OF DISPERSAL OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS Statement of the General Question of Dispersal—The Ocean as a Barrier to the Dispersal of Mammals—The Dispersal of Birds—The Dispersal of Reptiles—The Dispersal of Insects—The Dispersal of Land Mollusca—Great Antiquity of Land-shells—Causes Favouring the Abundance of Land-shells—The Dispersal of Plants—Special Adaptability of Seeds for Dispersal—Birds as Agents in the Dispersal of Seeds—Ocean Currents as Agents in Plant Dispersal—Dispersal along Moun

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CHAPTER VI

GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL CHANGES: THE PERMANENCE OF CONTINENTS Changes of Land and Sea, their Nature and Extent—Shore-Deposits and Stratified Rocks—The Movements of Continents—Supposed Oceanic Formations; the Origin of Chalk—Fresh-water and Shore-deposits as Proving the Permanence of Continents—Oceanic Islands as Indications of the Permanence of Continents and Oceans—General Stability of Continents with Constant Change of Form—Effect of Continental Changes on the Distribution of Animals—Chang

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CHAPTER VII

CHANGES OF CLIMATE WHICH HAVE INFLUENCED THE DISPERSAL OF ORGANISMS: THE GLACIAL EPOCH Proofs of the Recent Occurrence of a Glacial Epoch—Moraines—Travelled Blocks—Glacial Deposits of Scotland: the "Till"—Inferences from the Glacial Phenomena of Scotland—Glacial Phenomena of North America—Effects of the Glacial Epoch on Animal Life—Warm and Cold Periods—Palæontological Evidence of Alternate Cold and Warm Periods—Evidence of Interglacial Warm Periods on the Continent and in North America—Migratio

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CHAPTER VIII

THE CAUSES OF GLACIAL EPOCHS Various Suggested Causes—Astronomical Causes of Changes of Climate—Difference of Temperature Caused by Varying Distances of the Sun—Properties of Air and Water, Snow and Ice, in Relation to Climate—Effects of Snow on Climate—High Land and Great Moisture Essential to the Initiation of a Glacial Epoch—Perpetual Snow nowhere Exists on Lowlands—Conditions Determining the Presence or Absence of Perpetual Snow—Efficiency of Astronomical causes in Producing Glaciation—Actio

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CHAPTER IX

ANCIENT GLACIAL EPOCHS, AND MILD CLIMATES IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS Mr. Croll's Views on Ancient Glacial Epochs—Effects of Denudation in Destroying the Evidence of Remote Glacial Epochs—Rise of Sea-level Connected with Glacial Epochs a Cause of Further Denudation—What Evidence of Early Glacial Epochs may be Expected—Evidences of Ice-action During the Tertiary Period—The Weight of the Negative Evidence—Temperate Climates in the Arctic Regions—The Miocene Arctic Flora—Mild Arctic Climates of the Creta

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CHAPTER X

THE EARTH'S AGE, AND THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS Various Estimates of Geological Time—Denudation and Deposition of Strata as a Measure of Time—How to Estimate the Thickness of the Sedimentary Rocks—How to Estimate the Average Rate of Deposition of the Sedimentary Rocks—The Rate of Geological Change Probably Greater in very Remote Times—Value of the Preceding Estimate of Geological Time—Organic Modification Dependent on Change of Conditions—Geographical Mutations as a Motive Pow

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CHAPTER XI

THE CLASSIFICATION OF ISLANDS Importance of Islands in the Study of the Distribution of Organisms—Classification of Islands with Reference to Distribution—Continental Islands—Oceanic Islands Pages 241 - 245...

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CHAPTER XII

OCEANIC ISLANDS:—THE AZORES AND BERMUDA The Azores, or Western Islands Position and Physical Features—Chief Zoological Features of the Azores—Birds—Origin of the Azorean Bird-fauna—Insects of the Azores—Land-shells of the Azores—The Flora of the Azores—The Dispersal of Seeds—Birds as seed-carriers—Facilities for Dispersal of Azorean Plants—Important Deduction from the Peculiarities of the Azorean Fauna and Flora Pages 246 - 262 Bermuda Position and Physical Features—The Red Clay of Bermuda—Zoolo

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CHAPTER XIII

THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS Position and Physical Features—Absence of Indigenous Mammalia and Amphibia—Reptiles—Birds—Insects and Land-shells—The Keeling Islands as Illustrating the Manner in which Oceanic Islands are Peopled—Flora of the Galapagos—Origin of the Flora of the Galapagos—Concluding remarks Pages 273 - 291...

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CHAPTER XIV

ST. HELENA Position and Physical Features of St. Helena—Change Effected by European Occupation—The Insects of St. Helena—Coleoptera—Peculiarities and Origin of the Coleoptera of St. Helena—Land-shells of St. Helena—Absence of Fresh-water Organisms—Native Vegetation of St. Helena—The Relations of the St. Helena Compositæ—Concluding Remarks on St. Helena Pages 292 - 309...

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CHAPTER XV

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS Position and Physical Features—Zoology of the Sandwich Islands—Birds—Reptiles—Land-shells—Insects—Vegetation of the Sandwich Islands—Peculiar Features of the Hawaiian Flora—Antiquity of the Hawaiian Fauna and Flora—Concluding Observations on the Fauna and Flora of the Sandwich Islands—General Remarks on Oceanic Islands Pages 310 - 330...

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CHAPTER XVI

CONTINENTAL ISLANDS OF RECENT ORIGIN: GREAT BRITAIN Characteristic Features of Recent Continental Islands—Recent Physical Changes of the British Isles—Proofs of Former Elevation—Submerged Forests—Buried River Channels—Time of Last Union with the Continent—Why Britain is Poor in Species—Peculiar British Birds—-Fresh-water Fishes—Cause of Great Speciality in Fishes—Peculiar British Insects—Lepidoptera Confined to the British Isles—Peculiarities of the Isle of Man Lepidoptera—Coleoptera Confined to

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CHAPTER XVII

BORNEO AND JAVA Position and Physical Features of Borneo—Zoological Features of Borneo: Mammalia—Birds—The Affinities of the Borneo Fauna—Java, its Position and Physical Features—General Character of the Fauna of Java—Differences Between the Fauna of Java and that of the other Malay Islands—Special Relations of the Javan Fauna to that of the Asiatic Continent—Past Geographical Changes of Java and Borneo—The Philippine Islands—Concluding Remarks on the Malay Islands Pages 373 - 390...

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CHAPTER XVIII

JAPAN AND FORMOSA Japan, its Position and Physical Features—Zoological Features of Japan—Mammalia—Birds—Birds Common to Great Britain and Japan—Birds Peculiar to Japan—Japan Birds Recurring in Distant Areas—Formosa—Physical Features of Formosa—Animal Life of Formosa—Mammalia—Land Birds Peculiar to Formosa—Formosan Birds Recurring in India or Malaya—Comparison of Faunas of Hainan, Formosa, and Japan—General Remarks on Recent Continental Islands Pages 391 - 410...

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CHAPTER XIX

ANCIENT CONTINENTAL ISLANDS: THE MADAGASCAR GROUP Remarks on Ancient Continental Islands—Physical Features of Madagascar—Biological Features of Madagascar—Mammalia—Reptiles—Relation of Madagascar to Africa—Early History of Africa and Madagascar—Anomalies of Distribution and how to Explain Them—The Birds of Madagascar as Indicating a Supposed Lemurian Continent—Submerged Islands Between Madagascar and India—Concluding Remarks on "Lemuria"—The Mascarene Islands—The Comoro Islands—The Seychelles Ar

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CHAPTER XX

ANOMALOUS ISLANDS: CELEBES Anomalous Relations of Celebes—Physical Features of the Island—Zoological Character of the Islands Around Celebes—The Malayan and Australian Banks—Zoology of Celebes: Mammalia—Probable Derivation of the Mammals of Celebes—Birds of Celebes—Bird-types Peculiar to Celebes—Celebes not Strictly a Continental Island—Peculiarities of the Insects of Celebes—Himalayan Types of Birds and Butterflies in Celebes—Peculiarities of Shape and Colour of Celebesian Butterflies—Concludin

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CHAPTER XXI

ANOMALOUS ISLANDS: NEW ZEALAND Position and Physical Features of New Zealand—Zoological Character of New Zealand—Mammalia—Wingless Birds Living and Extinct—Recent Existence of the Moa—Past Changes of New Zealand deduced from its Wingless Birds—Birds and Reptiles of New Zealand—Conclusions from the Peculiarities of the New Zealand Fauna Pages 471 - 486...

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CHAPTER XXII

THE FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND: ITS AFFINITIES AND PROBABLE ORIGIN Relations of the New Zealand Flora to that of Australia—General Features of the Australian Flora—The Floras of South-eastern and South-western Australia—Geological Explanation of the Differences of these Two Floras—The Origin of the Australian Element in the New Zealand Flora—Tropical Character of the New Zealand Flora Explained—Species Common to New Zealand and Australia mostly Temperate Forms—Why Easily Dispersed Plants have often Re

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CHAPTER XXIII

ON THE ARCTIC ELEMENT IN SOUTH TEMPERATE FLORAS European Species and Genera of Plants in the Southern Hemisphere—Aggressive Power of the Scandinavian Flora—Means by which Plants have Migrated from North to South—Newly Moved Soil as Affording Temporary Stations to Migrating Plants—Elevation and Depression of the Snow-line as Aiding the Migration of Plants—Changes of Climate Favourable to Migration—The Migration from North to South has been Long going on—Geological Changes as Aiding Migration—Proo

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CHAPTER XXIV

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The Present Volume is the Development and Application of a Theory—Statement of the Biological and Physical Causes of Dispersal—Investigation of the Facts of Dispersal—Of the Means of Dispersal—Of Geographical Changes Affecting Dispersal—Of Climatal Changes Affecting Dispersal—The Glacial Epoch and its Causes—Alleged Ancient Glacial Epochs—Warm Polar Climates and their Causes—Conclusions as to Geological Climates—How Far Different from those of Mr. Croll—Supposed Limitation

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY Remarkable Contrasts in distribution of Animals—Britain and Japan—Australia and New Zealand—Bali and Lombok—Florida and Bahama Islands—Brazil and Africa—Borneo, Madagascar, and Celebes—Problems in distribution to be found in every country—Can be solved only by the combination of many distinct lines of inquiry, biological and physical—Islands offer the best subjects for the study of distribution—Outline of the subjects to be discussed in the present volume. When an Englishman travels

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CHAPTER II

THE ELEMENTARY FACTS OF DISTRIBUTION Importance of Locality as an essential character of Species—Areas of Distribution—Extent and Limitations of Specific Areas—Specific range of Birds—Generic Areas—Separate and overlapping areas—The species of Tits as illustrating Areas of Distribution—The distribution of the species of Jays—Discontinuous generic areas—Peculiarities of generic and family distribution—General features of overlapping and discontinuous areas—Restricted areas of Families—The distrib

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CHAPTER III

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FACTS OF DISTRIBUTION.—ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS The Geographical Divisions of the Globe do not correspond to Zoological divisions—The range of British Mammals as indicating a Zoological Region—Range of East Asian and North African Mammals—The Range of British Birds—Range of East Asian Birds—The limits of the Palæarctic Region—Characteristic features of the Palæarctic Region—Definition and characteristic groups of the Ethiopian Region—Of the Oriental Region—Of the Australian Regio

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CHAPTER IV

EVOLUTION THE KEY TO DISTRIBUTION Importance of the Doctrine of Evolution—The Origin of New Species—Variation in Animals—The Amount of Variation in North American Birds—How New Species arise from a Variable Species—Definition and Origin of Genera—Cause of the Extinction of Species—The Rise and Decay of Species and Genera—Discontinuous Specific Areas, why Rare—Discontinuity of the Area of Parus Palustris—Discontinuity of Emberiza Schœniclus—The European and Japanese Jays—Supposed Examples of Disc

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CHAPTER V

THE POWERS OF DISPERSAL OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS Statement of the general question of Dispersal—The Ocean as a Barrier to the Dispersal of Mammals—The Dispersal of Birds—The Dispersal of Reptiles—The Dispersal of Insects—The Dispersal of Land Mollusca—Great Antiquity of Land-shells—Causes favouring the Abundance of Land-shells—The Dispersal of Plants—Special adaptability of Seeds for Dispersal—Birds as agents in the Dispersal of Seeds—Ocean Currents as agents in Plant Dispersal—Dispersal along Moun

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CHAPTER VI

GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL CHANGES: THE PERMANENCE OF CONTINENTS Changes of Land, and Sea, their Nature and Extent—Shore-deposits and Stratified Rocks—The Movements of Continents—Supposed Oceanic Formations; the Origin of Chalk—Fresh-water and Shore-deposits as proving the Permanence of Continents—Oceanic Islands as indications of the Permanence of Continents and Oceans—General Stability of Continents with constant Change of Form—Effect of Continental Changes on the Distribution of Animals—Chan

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CHAPTER VII

CHANGES OF CLIMATE WHICH HAVE INFLUENCED THE DISPERSAL OF ORGANISMS: THE GLACIAL EPOCH Proofs of the Recent Occurrence of a Glacial Epoch—Moraines—Travelled Blocks—Glacial Deposits of Scotland: the "Till"—Inferences from the Glacial Phenomena of Scotland—Glacial Phenomena of North America—Effects of the Glacial Epoch on Animal Life—Warm and Cold Periods—Palæontological Evidence of Alternate Cold and Warm Periods—Evidence of Interglacial Warm Periods on the Continent and in North America—Migratio

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CHAPTER VIII

THE CAUSES OF GLACIAL EPOCHS Various Suggested Causes—Astronomical Causes of Changes of Climate—Difference of Temperature caused by Varying Distance of the Sun—Properties of Air and Water, Snow and Ice, in Relation to Climate—Effects of Snow on Climate—High Land and Great Moisture Essential to the Initiation of a Glacial Epoch—Perpetual Snow nowhere Exists on Lowlands—Conditions Determining the Presence or Absence of Perpetual Snow—Efficiency of Astronomical Causes in Producing Glaciation—Action

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CHAPTER IX

ANCIENT GLACIAL EPOCHS, AND MILD CLIMATES IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS Dr. Croll's Views on Ancient Glacial Epochs—Effects of Denudation in Destroying the Evidence of Remote Glacial Epochs—Rise of Sea-level Connected with Glacial Epochs a Cause of Further Denudation—What Evidence of Early Glacial Epochs may be Expected—Evidences of Ice-action During the Tertiary Period—The Weight of the Negative Evidence—Temperate Climates in the Arctic Regions—The Miocene Arctic Flora—Mild Arctic Climates of the Creta

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CHAPTER X

THE EARTH'S AGE, AND THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS Various Estimates of Geological Time—Denudation and Deposition of Strata as a Measure of Time—How to Estimate the Thickness of the Sedimentary Rocks—How to Estimate the Average Rate of Deposition of the Sedimentary Rocks—The Rate of Geological Change Probably greater in very Remote Times—Value of the Preceding Estimate of Geological Time—Organic Modification Dependent on Change of Conditions—Geographical Mutations as a Motive Pow

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CHAPTER XI

THE CLASSIFICATION OF ISLANDS Importance of Islands in the Study of the Distribution of Organisms—Classification of Islands with Reference to Distribution—Continental Islands—Oceanic Islands. In the preceding chapters, forming the first part of our work, we have discussed, more or less fully, the general features presented by animal distribution, as well as the various physical and biological changes which have been the most important agents in bringing about the present condition of the organic

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CHAPTER XII

OCEANIC ISLANDS:—THE AZORES AND BERMUDA The Azores, or Western Islands Position and Physical Features—Chief Zoological Features of the Azores—Birds—Origin of the Azorean Bird Fauna—Insects of the Azores—Land-Shells of the Azores—The Flora of the Azores—The Dispersal of Seeds—Birds as Seed-Carriers—Facilities for Dispersal of Azorean Plants—Important Deduction from the Peculiarities of the Azorean Fauna and Flora. Bermuda Position and Physical Features—The Red Clay of Bermuda—Zoology of Bermuda—B

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CHAPTER XIII

THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS Position and Physical Features—Absence of Indigenous Mammalia and Amphibia—Reptiles—Birds—Insects and Land-Shells—The Keeling Islands as Illustrating the Manner in which Oceanic Islands are Peopled—Flora of the Galapagos—Origin of the Flora of the Galapagos—Concluding Remarks. The Galapagos differ in many important respects from the islands we have examined in our last chapter, and the differences are such as to have affected the whole character of their animal inhabitants.

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CHAPTER XIV

ST. HELENA Position and Physical Features of St. Helena—Change Effected by European Occupation—The Insects of St. Helena—Coleoptera—Peculiarities and Origin of the Coleoptera of St. Helena—Land-shells of St. Helena—Absence of Fresh-water Organisms—Native Vegetation of St. Helena—The Relations of the St. Helena Compositæ—Concluding Remarks on St. Helena. In order to illustrate as completely as possible the peculiar phenomena of oceanic islands, we will next examine the organic productions of St.

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CHAPTER XV

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS Position and Physical Features—Zoology of the Sandwich Islands—Birds—Reptiles—Land-shells—Insects—Vegetation of the Sandwich Islands—Peculiar Features of the Hawaiian Flora—Antiquity of the Hawaiian Fauna and Flora—Concluding Observations on the Fauna and Flora of the Sandwich Islands—General Remarks on Oceanic Islands. The Sandwich Islands are an extensive group of large islands situated in the centre of the North Pacific, being 2,350 miles from the nearest part of the Amer

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CHAPTER XVI

CONTINENTAL ISLANDS OF RECENT ORIGIN: GREAT BRITAIN Characteristic Features of Recent Continental Islands—Recent Physical Changes of the British Isles—Proofs of Former Elevation—Submerged Forests—Buried River Channels—Time of Last Union with the Continent—Why Britain is poor in Species—Peculiar British Birds—Freshwater Fishes—Cause of Great Speciality in Fishes—Peculiar British Insects—Lepidoptera Confined to the British Isles—Peculiarities of the Isle of Man—Lepidoptera—Coleoptera confined to t

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CHAPTER XVII

BORNEO AND JAVA Position and Physical Features of Borneo—Zoological Features of Borneo: Mammalia—Birds—The Affinities of the Bornean Fauna—Java, its Position and Physical Features—General Character of the Fauna of Java—Differences Between the Fauna of Java and that of the other Malay Islands—Special Relations of the Javan Fauna to that of the Asiatic Continent—Past Geographical Changes of Java and Borneo—The Philippine Islands—Concluding Remarks on the Malay Islands. As a representative of recen

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CHAPTER XVIII

JAPAN AND FORMOSA Japan, its Position and Physical Features—Zoological Features of Japan—Mammalia—Birds—Birds Common to Great Britain and Japan—Birds Peculiar to Japan—Japan Birds Recurring in Distant Areas—Formosa—Physical Features of Formosa—Animal Life of Formosa—Mammalia—Land-birds Peculiar to Formosa—Formosan Birds Recurring in India or Malaya—Comparison of Faunas of Hainan, Formosa, and Japan—General Remarks on Recent Continental Islands. Japan. The Japanese Islands occupy a very similar p

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CHAPTER XIX

ANCIENT CONTINENTAL ISLANDS: THE MADAGASCAR GROUP Remarks on Ancient Continental Islands—Physical Features of Madagascar—Biological Features of Madagascar—Mammalia—Reptiles—Relation of Madagascar to Africa—Early History of Africa and Madagascar—Anomalies of Distribution and How to Explain Them—The Birds of Madagascar as Indicating a Supposed Lemurian Continent—Submerged Islands between Madagascar and India—Concluding Remarks on "Lemuria"—The Mascarene Islands—The Comoro Islands—The Seychelles Ar

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CHAPTER XX

ANOMALOUS ISLANDS: CELEBES Anomalous Relations of Celebes—Physical Features of the Island—Zoological Character of the Islands Around Celebes—The Malayan and Australian Banks—Zoology of Celebes: Mammalia—Probable Derivation of the Mammals of Celebes—Birds of Celebes—Bird-types Peculiar to Celebes—Celebes not Strictly a Continental Island—Peculiarities of the Insects of Celebes—Himalayan Types of Birds and Butterflies in Celebes—Peculiarities of Shape and Colour of Celebesian Butterflies—Concludin

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CHAPTER XXI

ANOMALOUS ISLANDS: NEW ZEALAND Position and Physical Features of New Zealand—Zoological Character of New Zealand—Mammalia—Wingless Birds Living and Extinct—Recent Existence of the Moa—Past Changes of New Zealand deduced from its Wingless Birds—Birds and Reptiles of New Zealand—Conclusions from the Peculiarities of the New Zealand Fauna. The fauna of New Zealand has been so recently described, and its bearing on the past history of the islands so fully discussed in my large work already referred

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CHAPTER XXII

THE FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND: ITS AFFINITIES AND PROBABLE ORIGIN Relations of the New Zealand Flora to that of Australia—General Features of the Australian Flora—The Floras of South-eastern and South-western Australia—Geological Explanation of the Differences of these two Floras—The Origin of the Australian Element in the New Zealand Flora—Tropical Character of the New Zealand Flora Explained—Species Common to New Zealand and Australia mostly Temperate Forms—Why Easily Dispersed Plants have often Re

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CHAPTER XXIII

ON THE ARCTIC ELEMENT IN SOUTH TEMPERATE FLORAS European Species and Genera of Plants in the Southern Hemisphere—Aggressive Power of the Scandinavian Flora—Means by which Plants have Migrated from North to South—Newly moved Soil as Affording Temporary Stations to Migrating Plants—Elevation and Depression of the Snow-line as Aiding the Migration of Plants—Changes of Climate Favourable to Migration—The Migration from North to South has been long going on—Geological Changes as Aiding Migration—Proo

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CHAPTER XXIV

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The Present Volume is the Development and Application of a Theory—Statement of the Biological and Physical Causes of Dispersal—Investigation of the Facts of Dispersal—of the Means of Dispersal—of Geographical Changes Affecting Dispersal—of Climatal Changes Affecting Dispersal—The Glacial Epoch and its Causes—Alleged Ancient Glacial Epochs—Warm Polar Climates and their Causes—Conclusions as to Geological Climates—How far Different from those of Mr. Croll—Supposed Limitation

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