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NOVUM ORGANON RENOVATUM.
NOVUM ORGANON RENOVATUM.
By WILLIAM WHEWELL, D.D., MASTER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. BEING THE SECOND PART OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE INDUCTIVE SCIENCES. THE THIRD EDITION, WITH LARGE ADDITIONS. ΛΑΜΠΑΔIΑ ΕΧΟΝΤΕΣ ΔIΑΔΩΣΟΥΣIΝ ΑΛΛΗΛΟIΣ LONDON: JOHN W. PARKER AND SON, WEST STRAND. 1858. Even if Bacon’s Novum Organon had possessed the character to which it aspired as completely as was possible in its own day, it would at present need renovation: and even if no such book
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PREFACE.
PREFACE.
It can hardly happen that a work which treats of Methods of Scientific Discovery, shall not seem to fail in the positive results which it offers. For an Art of Discovery is not possible. At each step of the investigation are needed Invention, Sagacity, Genius,—elements which no art can give. We may hope in vain, as Bacon hoped, for an Organ which shall enable all men to construct Scientific Truths, as a pair of compasses enables all men to construct exact circles 2 . This cannot be. The practica
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NOVUM ORGANON RENOVATUM.
NOVUM ORGANON RENOVATUM.
NOVUM ORGANON RENOVATUM. APHORISMS CONCERNING IDEAS DERIVED FROM THE HISTORY OF IDEAS. I. MAN is the Interpreter of Nature, Science the right interpretation. ( History of Scientific Ideas : Book i. Chapter 1.) II. The Senses place before us the Characters of the Book of Nature; but these convey no knowledge to us, till we have discovered the Alphabet by which they are to be read. (Ibid. i. 2.) III. The Alphabet, by means of which we interpret Phenomena, consists of the Ideas existing in our own
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BOOK I.
BOOK I.
The Senses place before us the Characters of the Book of Nature; but these convey no knowledge to us, till we have discovered the Alphabet by which they are to be read. (Ibid. i. 2.) III. The Alphabet, by means of which we interpret Phenomena, consists of the Ideas existing in our own minds; for these give to the phenomena that coherence and significance which is not an object of sense. ( i. 2.) IV. The antithesis of Sense and Ideas is the foundation of the Philosophy of Science. No knowledge ca
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CHAPTER I. Of two principal Processes by which Science is constructed.
CHAPTER I. Of two principal Processes by which Science is constructed.
THE two processes by which Science is constructed are the Explication of Conceptions, and the Colligation of Facts. TO the subject of the present and next Book all that has preceded is subordinate and preparatory. In former works we have treated of the History of Scientific Discoveries and of the History of Scientific Ideas. We have now to attempt to describe the manner in which discoveries are made, and in which Ideas give rise to knowledge. It has already been stated that Knowledge requires us
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CHAPTER II. Of the Explication of Conceptions.
CHAPTER II. Of the Explication of Conceptions.
Conceptions, for purposes of science, must be appropriate as well as clear: that is, they must be modifications of that Fundamental Idea, by which the phenomena can really be interpreted. This maxim may warn us from errour, though it may not lead to discovery. Discovery depends upon the previous cultivation or natural clearness of the appropriate Idea, and therefore no discovery is the work of accident. Sect. I. — Historical Progress of the Explication of Conceptions. 1. W E have given the appel
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CHAPTER III. Of Facts as the Materials of Science.
CHAPTER III. Of Facts as the Materials of Science.
The last Aphorism leads to such Rules as the following:—That Facts, for the purposes of material science, must involve Conceptions of the Intellect only, and not Emotions:—That Facts must be observed with reference to our most exact conceptions, Number, Place, Figure, Motion:—That they must also be observed with reference to any other exact conceptions which the phenomena suggest, as Force, in mechanical phenomena, Concord, in musical. Aphorism VI. The resolution of complex Facts into precise an
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CHAPTER IV. Of the Colligation of Facts.
CHAPTER IV. Of the Colligation of Facts.
The Conceptions by which Facts are bound together, are suggested by the sagacity of discoverers. This sagacity cannot be taught. It commonly succeeds by guessing; and this success seems to consist in framing several tentative hypotheses and selecting the right one. But a supply of appropriate hypotheses cannot be constructed by rule, nor without inventive talent. Aphorism IX. The truth of tentative hypotheses must be tested by their application to facts. The discoverer must be ready, carefully t
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CHAPTER V. Of Certain Characteristics of Scientific Induction.
CHAPTER V. Of Certain Characteristics of Scientific Induction.
Hypotheses may be useful, though involving much that is superfluous, and even erroneous: for they may supply the true bond of connexion of the facts; and the superfluity and errour may afterwards be pared away. Aphorism XII. It is a test of true theories not only to account for, but to predict phenomena. Aphorism XIII. Induction is a term applied to describe the process of a true Colligation of Facts by means of an exact and appropriate Conception. An Induction is also employed to denote the pro
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CHAPTER VI. Of the Logic of Induction.
CHAPTER VI. Of the Logic of Induction.
The Logic of Deduction is exhibited by means of a certain Formula; namely, a Syllogism; and every train of deductive reasoning, to be demonstrative, must be capable of resolution into a series of such Formulæ legitimately constructed. In like manner, the Logic of Induction may be exhibited by means of certain Formulæ; and every train of inductive inference to be sound, must be capable of resolution into a scheme of such Formulæ, legitimately constructed. Aphorism XIX. The inductive act of though
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CHAPTER VII. Of Laws of Phenomena and of Causes.
CHAPTER VII. Of Laws of Phenomena and of Causes.
Hence the larger part of our knowledge of nature, at least of the certain portion of it, consists of the knowledge of the Laws of Phenomena. In Astronomy indeed, besides knowing the rules which guide the appearances, and resolving them into the real motions from which they arise, we can refer these motions to the forces which produce them. In Optics, we have become acquainted with a vast number of laws by which varied and beautiful phenomena are governed; and perhaps we may assume, since the evi
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CHAPTER VIII. Of Art and Science.
CHAPTER VIII. Of Art and Science.
Practical Knowledge, such as Art implies, is not Knowledge such as Science includes. Brute animals have a practical knowledge of relations of space and force; but they have no knowledge of Geometry or Mechanics. 1. T HE distinction of Arts and Sciences very materially affects all classifications of the departments of Human Knowledge. It is often maintained, expressly or tacitly, that the Arts are a part of our knowledge, in the same sense in which the Sciences are so; and that Art is the applica
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CHAPTER IX. Of the Classification of Sciences.
CHAPTER IX. Of the Classification of Sciences.
3. We may further observe, that this arrangement of Sciences according to the Fundamental Ideas which they involve, points out the transition from those parts of human knowledge which have been included in our History and Philosophy, to other regions of speculation into which we have not entered. We have repeatedly found ourselves upon the borders of inquiries of a psychological, or moral, or theological nature. Thus the History of Physiology 28 led us to the consideration 138 of Life, Sensation
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CHAPTER I. Introduction.
CHAPTER I. Introduction.
The Methods by which the construction of Science is promoted are, Methods of Observation, Methods of obtaining clear Ideas, and Methods of Induction. 1. I N the preceding Book, we pointed out certain general Characters of scientific knowledge which may often serve to distinguish it from opinions of a looser or vaguer kind. In the course of the progress of knowledge from the earliest to the present time, men have been led to a perception, more or less clear, of these characteristics. Various phil
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CHAPTER II. Of Methods of Observation.
CHAPTER II. Of Methods of Observation.
2. But though we have to explain how observations may be made as perfect as possible, we must not forget that in most cases complete perfection is unattainable. Observations are never perfect. For we 146 observe phenomena by our senses, and measure their relations in time and space; but our senses and our measures are all, from various causes, inaccurate. If we have to observe the exact place of the moon among the stars, how much of instrumental apparatus is necessary! This apparatus has been im
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CHAPTER III. Of Methods of acquiring clear Scientific Ideas; and first of Intellectual Education.
CHAPTER III. Of Methods of acquiring clear Scientific Ideas; and first of Intellectual Education.
The Idea of Space becomes more clear by studying Geometry; the Idea of Force, by studying Mechanics; the Ideas of Likeness, of Kind, of Subordination of Classes, by studying Natural History. Aphorism XXXI. Elementary Mechanics should now form a part of intellectual education, in order that the student may understand the Theory of Universal Gravitation: for an intellectual education should cultivate such ideas as enable the student to understand the most complete and admirable portions of the kno
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CHAPTER IV. Of Methods of acquiring clear Scientific Ideas, continued.—Of the Discussion of Ideas.
CHAPTER IV. Of Methods of acquiring clear Scientific Ideas, continued.—Of the Discussion of Ideas.
2. We have in the last Book 21 fully exemplified this gradual progress of conceptions from obscurity to clearness by means of Discussion. We have seen, too, that this mode of treating the subject has never been successful, except when it has been associated with an appeal to facts as well as to reasonings. A combination of experiment with argument, of observation with demonstration, has always been found requisite in order that men should arrive at those distinct conceptions which give them subs
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CHAPTER V. Analysis of the Process of Induction.
CHAPTER V. Analysis of the Process of Induction.
These three steps correspond to the determination of the Independent Variable, the Formula, and the Coefficients, in mathematical investigations; or to the Argument, the Law, and the Numerical Data, in a Table of an astronomical or other Inequality. Aphorism XXXVI. The Selection of the Idea depends mainly upon inventive sagacity: which operates by suggesting and trying various hypotheses. Some inquirers try erroneous hypotheses; and thus, exhausting the forms of errour, form the Prelude to Disco
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CHAPTER VI. General Rules for the Construction of the Conception.
CHAPTER VI. General Rules for the Construction of the Conception.
When a series of progressive numbers is given as the result of observation, it may generally be reduced to law by combinations of arithmetical and geometrical progressions. Aphorism XL. A true formula for a progressive series of numbers cannot commonly be obtained from a narrow range of observations. Aphorism XLI. Recurrent series of numbers must, in most cases, be expressed by circular formulæ. Aphorism XLII. The true construction of the conception is frequently suggested by some hypothesis; an
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CHAPTER VII. Special Methods of Induction applicable to Quantity.
CHAPTER VII. Special Methods of Induction applicable to Quantity.
The Method of Curves consists in drawing a curve of which the observed quantities are the Ordinates, the quantity on which the change of these quantities depends being the Abscissa. The efficacy of this Method depends upon the faculty which the eye possesses, of readily detecting regularity and irregularity in forms. The Method may be used to detect the Laws which the observed quantities follow: and also, when the Observations are inexact, it may be used to correct these Observations, so as to o
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CHAPTER VIII. Methods of Induction depending on Resemblance.
CHAPTER VIII. Methods of Induction depending on Resemblance.
The Method of Gradation consists in taking a number of stages of a property in question, intermediate between two extreme cases which appear to be different. This Method is employed to determine whether the extreme cases are really distinct or not. Aphorism LI. The Method of Gradation, applied to decide the question, whether the existing geological phenomena arise from existing causes, leads to this result:—That the phenomena do appear to arise from Existing Causes, but that the action of existi
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CHAPTER IX. Of the Application of Inductive Truths.
CHAPTER IX. Of the Application of Inductive Truths.
Such observations and experiments, when numerous and accurate, supply also corrections of the constants involved in the theory; and sometimes , ( by the Method of Residues ,) additions to the theory. Aphorism LV. It is worth considering, whether a continued and connected system of observation and calculation, like that of astronomy, might not be employed with advantage in improving our knowledge of other subjects; as Tides, Currents, Winds, Clouds, Rain, Terrestrial Magnetism, Aurora Borealis, C
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CHAPTER X. Of the Induction of Causes.
CHAPTER X. Of the Induction of Causes.
The Induction of Substance, of Force, of Polarity, go beyond mere laws of phenomena, and may be considered as the Induction of Causes. Aphorism LXII. The Cause of certain phenomena being inferred, we are led to inquire into the Cause of this Cause, which inquiry must be conducted in the same manner as the previous one; and thus we have the Induction of Ulterior Causes. Aphorism LXIII. In contemplating the series of Causes which are themselves the effects of other causes, we are necessarily led t
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