The Student's Mythology - free ebook by Catherine Ann White

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The Student's Mythology

Catherine Ann White

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108 chapters

THE STUDENT’S MYTHOLOGY

THE STUDENT’S MYTHOLOGY

A COMPENDIUM OF Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec, and Peruvian Mythologies, IN ACCORDANCE WITH STANDARD AUTHORITIES. ARRANGED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. BY C. A. WHITE. NEW EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED. NEW YORK. A. C. ARMSTRONG &amp; SON, 714 Broadway . 1889. Entered According to Act of Congress in the year 1870, by W. J. WIDDLETON, In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern

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PREFATORY NOTE.

PREFATORY NOTE.

The Student’s Mythology has been in use in manuscript for nearly three years in one of our largest academies, where it has been received with much favor by both teachers and pupils. Even in that form, which subjected them to the inconvenience of long dictations, it was preferred to any of the ordinary text-books on the subject. Copies were sought for the use of other institutions, and the principals of the academy referred to, consented that the work should be prepared for the press. In carrying

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MOUNT OLYMPUS.

MOUNT OLYMPUS.

Ques. Where were the gods supposed to dwell? Ans. On the summit of Mount Olympus, in Thessaly. This mountain hides its head, covered with perpetual snows, in a belt of clouds. The Greeks imagined above these, a sublime abode reposing in eternal sunshine, and free from the storms which vexed the lower world. A gate of clouds, guarded by the goddesses of the seasons, opened to permit the passage of the Celestials when they descended to earth. Each god had his own dwelling, but all were obliged to

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THE GODS—DIFFERENT CLASSES OF DEITIES.

THE GODS—DIFFERENT CLASSES OF DEITIES.

Ques. Did the Greeks believe that the gods resembled men? Ans. Yes; in many particulars. They supposed them to have the same passions, both good and evil. They were immortal, yet could suffer pain and receive wounds. Instead of blood a fluid called ichor filled their veins. The deities resembled men also in form, but they were, with some exceptions, of majestic stature and shone with celestial beauty. They could render themselves invisible at will, and were otherwise endowed with supernatural po

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JUPITER, (Greek, Zeus.)

JUPITER, (Greek, Zeus.)

Ques. Who was Jupiter? Ans. He was the king and father of gods and men. He is generally represented as a majestic man with a beard, sitting on a throne of gold and ivory. He brandishes the thunder in his right hand; giants lie prostrate under his feet, and an eagle stands at his side. Jupiter is sometimes called Jove, and as the eagle was sacred to him, it is often called the bird of Jove. Ques. Relate the story of Diony´sius and Jupiter’s cloak. Ans. The statues of this god were sometimes decor

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PHŒBUS—APOLLO.

PHŒBUS—APOLLO.

Ques. Who was Apollo? Ans. He was the son of Jupiter and Lato´na. This god was, with his twin-sister Diana, born at Delos, an island in which Lato´na had taken refuge from the anger of Juno. This goddess, jealous of Lato´na, sent the serpent Python to destroy her. One of the first exploits of Apollo was to kill the Python with his arrows. Ques. How is this god generally represented? Ans. As a young man, comely and graceful. He wears a laurel crown over his flowing hair; his garments are embroide

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MARS—ARES.

MARS—ARES.

Ques. Who was Mars? Ans. He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was worshipped as the god of war. Ques. How was he represented? Ans. As a warrior in splendid armor, standing in a chariot driven by Bello´na, a distracted woman, who holds a torch in her hand. Mars is fierce in aspect and brandishes a spear. Sometimes Discord is represented going before him in tattered garments, while Anger and Clamor follow in his train. Fear and Terror are the horses which draw the chariot. Ques. What animals we

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MERCURY—HERMES.

MERCURY—HERMES.

Ques. Who was Mercury? Ans. He was the son of Jupiter and Ma´ia, the daughter of Atlas. On his mother’s account, sacrifices were generally offered to him during the month of May. Ques. How is Mercury represented? Ans. As a young man of cheerful countenance, having wings fixed to his helmet and his sandals, and carrying a rod in his hand, which is also winged, and entwined with serpents. Ques. How are these different equipments named? Ans. The rod was called Cadu´ceus, and possessed a wonderful f

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BACCHUS—DIONYSUS.

BACCHUS—DIONYSUS.

Ques. Who was Bacchus? Ans. He was the son of Jupiter and Sem´ele and was worshipped as the god of wine. Ques. How is he represented? Ans. As a young man, crowned with ivy and grape leaves; he sits in a chariot, drawn sometimes by panthers and lynxes, and sometimes by tigers and lions. He carries in his hand a thyrsus—that is, a staff encircled by ivy and grape leaves; a troop of demons and drunken satyrs follow him. Ques. What was the story of Sem´ele? Ans. She was destroyed by the jealousy of

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JUNO—HERA.

JUNO—HERA.

Ques. Who was Juno? Ans. She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and was both sister and wife of Jupiter. Ques. How is she generally represented? Ans. As seated in a golden chariot drawn by peacocks. She holds a sceptre in her hand, and is crowned with roses and lilies. Iris was the messenger of Juno, as Mercury was of Jupiter. Ques. How is Iris represented? Ans. With wings, because of her swiftness, and sometimes also as riding on a rainbow. Ques. How did Iris differ from Mercury? Ans. Mercury

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MINERVA—PALLAS ATHENA.

MINERVA—PALLAS ATHENA.

Ques. Who was Minerva? Ans. She was the goddess of wisdom and of war. She had no mother, but sprang full armed from the head of Jupiter. Ques. How is Minerva represented? Ans. As clothed in complete armor. She has a golden helmet on her head, holds a lance in her right hand, and her left rests upon a shield to which is affixed the head of Medusa. The cock and the owl are also represented on the shield. Ques. Why was Minerva said to have sprung full armed from the head of Jupiter? Ans. The poets

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VENUS—APHRODITE.

VENUS—APHRODITE.

Ques. Who was Venus? Ans. She was the goddess of love and beauty. She sprang from the froth of the sea; for this reason the Greeks called her Aphrodi´te, from Aphros, meaning foam. As soon as she was born, she was placed like a pearl in a shell instead of a cradle, and the god Zephyrus (the west wind) wafted her to the shores of Cyprus. Ques. By whom was she educated? Ans. She was educated and adorned by the Horæ or Hours, who carried her to heaven as soon she became of age. All the gods were as

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LATONA—LETO.

LATONA—LETO.

Ques. Who was Latona? Ans. She was the daughter of Phœbe and Cœus the Titan. When she was driven from heaven by the jealousy of Juno, she found an asylum in the island of Delos, where she gave birth to Apollo and Diana. Terra (the earth) had promised Juno to give no shelter to her rival, but the island of Delos formerly floated in the sea, and was at that time hidden under the waters. Neptune, pitying the forlorn state of Latona, caused it to emerge from the sea, when it became fixed and immovab

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AURORA—EOS.

AURORA—EOS.

Ques. Who was Aurora? Ans. She was the goddess of the morning and sister of the sun and moon. She is represented as seated in a golden chariot drawn by milk-white horses; her countenance is brilliant, and her fingers are red like roses. Ques. What did this represent? Ans. The beauty of the morning heavens. Ques. Relate the story of Ceph´alus and Procris. Ans. Ceph´alus, a beautiful youth, was beloved by Aurora, who carried him with her to heaven; but he regarded the goddess with indifference, an

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SATURN.

SATURN.

Ques. Who was Saturn? Ans. He was the son of Cœlum and Terra. He was married to Ops, or Rhea, and was the father of Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto. As we have already learned, Saturn devoured the rest of his male children. Ques. How is he represented? Ans. Saturn is represented as an old man armed with a scythe, which signifies that time mows down everything in its course; and he holds in his hands an infant which he is about to devour, because time destroys all that it brings forth. Ques. How did S

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JANUS.

JANUS.

Ques. Who was Janus? Ans. He was an ancient Italian deity, of whose origin very contradictory accounts are given. He was supposed to have reigned in Italy in the time of Saturn, and to have associated that god with him in the kingdom. He was generally represented with two faces, and was called hence, Janus Bifrons. He had many temples in Rome. The gates of the chief temple, that of Janus Quiri´nus, were always open in time of war, and closed when the Romans were at peace. It is a remarkable circ

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VULCAN—HAPHÆSTUS.

VULCAN—HAPHÆSTUS.

Ques. Who was Vulcan? Ans. He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, but was cast down from heaven on account of his deformed appearance. He landed in Lemnos, but broke his leg in the fall, and remained lame ever afterwards. Ques. How was Vulcan represented? Ans. As a smith standing by an anvil with tools in his hand. Ques. What was his occupation? Ans. He had a blacksmith shop in Lemnos, where he manufactured Jupiter’s thunderbolts, and the arms of the other gods. Vulcan was the god of fire, and the

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ÆOLUS.

ÆOLUS.

Ques. Who was Æ´olus? Ans. He was the god of the winds; he could imprison them in a dark cave, or, by setting them free, create tempests. Ques. What was the origin of this fable? Ans. It is believed that Æ´olus was a skillful astronomer who dwelt in a volcanic island. By noticing the clouds of smoke, and how they rose, he was enabled to foretell storms a long time before they happened; hence the ignorant believed that he could bring high winds and tempests whenever he pleased....

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MOMUS.

MOMUS.

Ques. Who was Momus? Ans. He was the son of Night and Sleep; the name Momus signifies a jester. His occupation was to criticise the other gods, and censure their actions. Ques. Give an example? Ans. Neptune, Vulcan, and Minerva contended for the prize of skill; Neptune made a bull, Minerva a house, and Vulcan a man. Momus was called upon to decide their merits, but he blamed them all. He said that Neptune was imprudent in not placing the bull’s horns in his forehead, before his eyes, that he mig

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VESTA—HESTIA.

VESTA—HESTIA.

Ques. Who was Vesta? Ans. She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops or Rhea, and was, therefore, the sister of Jupiter. She was considered the guardian of homes and firesides, and was a household divinity. Statues of Vesta were placed by the Romans at the entrance of their houses; hence the word vestibule, which we still use. Ques. How is Vesta usually represented? Ans. As seated on the ground, and leaning upon a drum, while various domestic animals are grouped about her. Ques. What was the charact

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CYBELE.

CYBELE.

Ques. Who was Cyb´ele? Ans. This goddess, sometimes called by the Greeks, Rhea, and by the Latins, Ops, is considered to be a personification of the earth. She is goddess, not of cities only, but of all things which the earth contains. She was the daughter of Cœlum, and the wife of Saturn. Ques. How was Cyb´ele represented? Ans. Generally as riding in a chariot, drawn by lions. She wears a turreted crown, and is clothed in a many-colored mantle, on which are represented the figures of various an

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CERES—DEMETER.

CERES—DEMETER.

Ques. Who was Ceres? Ans. She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as the goddess of fruits and corn. It is supposed that she first invented and taught the art of tilling the earth, and sowing wheat and other grains, so that men ate wholesome bread, where before they had lived on roots and acorns. Ques. How is Ceres represented? Ans. As a beautiful and majestic woman, with golden hair, and crowned with ears of wheat; in her right hand she holds poppies and ears of corn, and in

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THEMIS—ASTRÆA—NEMESIS.

THEMIS—ASTRÆA—NEMESIS.

Ques. Who was Themis? Ans. She instructed both gods and men, and was generally considered the goddess of law and justice. Her origin is uncertain; but she is said to have been a Titaness. Ques. Who was Astræ´a? Ans. She was also goddess of justice; according to some, she was the daughter of Jupiter and Themis. When the Titans took up arms against Jupiter, Astræ´a descended to earth, and mingled with the human race. This intercourse was uninterrupted during the Golden Age; in the Silver Age, Astr

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THE MUSES.

THE MUSES.

Ques. Who were the Muses? Ans. They were the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo´syne, and were supposed to preside over the liberal arts and sciences. Ques. How many Muses were there? Ans. They were nine in number, and each presided over some particular department of literature, art or science. Their names were: Calli´ope, who was the Muse of epic poetry, she holds in her hand a roll of parchment, or a trumpet. Clio presided over history. She holds a half opened scroll. Melpo´mene was the Muse of tr

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PAN.

PAN.

Ques. Who was Pan? Ans. He was a woodland deity, and was honored by the Romans as the god of shepherds and the patron of fishing and fowling. The Latins sometimes called him Incubus or the “Nightmare,” and at Rome he was worshipped as Lupercus, or Lynceus. His origin is uncertain, but he is said by some authors to have been a son of Mercury and a nymph of Arcadia. Ques. How is Pan represented? Ans. As half man, and half goat, having a human head ornamented with horns, and a garland of pine: he h

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SATYRS AND FAUNS.

SATYRS AND FAUNS.

Ques. Who were these? Ans. They were hideous monsters who dwelt in forests, and were, like Pan, half man and half goat....

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TERMINUS.

TERMINUS.

Ques. Who was Terminus? Ans. He was the god of boundaries. His statue was only a square stone, or a painted log of wood. It is probable that the Romans did not suppose Terminus to be a person, but only used the name as another term for justice, which forbids any one to trespass on another’s boundaries. Landmarks and boundary stones were considered sacred by the Romans; they were crowned with garlands on festivals, offerings were laid upon them, and it was death for any one to remove one. When Co

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VERTUMNUS.

VERTUMNUS.

Ques. Who was this deity? Ans. He is generally reckoned as one of the rural divinities, and was worshipped as such by the ancient Sabines. The name comes from the Latin word verto, (to turn or change,) and was bestowed upon him in allusion to his power of taking any form he pleased. Vertumnus presided over the seasons; he was the husband of Pomona. Statues of this god were erected in every town of Italy. His festival called Vertumnalia, was kept in October....

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DIANA.

DIANA.

Ques. Who was Diana? Ans. She was the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and the twin-sister of Apollo. This goddess had three names. On earth she was called Diana, and was honored as the goddess of woods and hunting; in heaven she was called Luna, and was identified with the moon, as her brother Apollo was with the sun. In hell, she was called Hec´ate, and as spirits were supposed to be subject to her, she was invoked under the latter name in all magical incantations. Ques. What were the habits of

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NYMPHS.

NYMPHS.

Ques. Who were the Nymphs? Ans. They were graceful young women who attended on Diana and the greater goddesses. Some, also, had charge of certain fountains and rivers, and were called Na´iades; the nymphs of Ocean were Nere´ides and Ocean´ides. The Ore´ades were mountain nymphs, and others presided over groves and even single trees. Ques. What were the woodland nymphs called? Ans. Those who watched over the forests, and always lived among the trees, were called Dry´ades, from a Greek word which

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NEPTUNE—POSEIDON.

NEPTUNE—POSEIDON.

Ques. Who was Neptune? Ans. He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as the god of the sea, and the father of rivers and fountains. Ques. How is he represented? Ans. As standing upright in a chariot made of a sea-shell; for a sceptre, he holds a trident, that is, a fork with three barbed tines; he is arrayed in a blue mantle, and is generally accompanied by his queen Amphitri´te. Neptune’s chariot is drawn by sea-horses, and his attendants, who swim on either side, are human only to

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PLUTO—HADES.

PLUTO—HADES.

Ques. Who was Pluto? Ans. He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and the brother of Jupiter and Neptune. In the division of his father’s kingdom, the infernal regions were allotted to him, and he is therefore called the king of Hell. Ques. How is Pluto represented? Ans. He is seated on a throne in the midst of clouds and darkness; he wears a crown of ebony, and holds a key in his hand instead of a sceptre. Ques. What does the key signify? Ans. It seems to imply, that when once the dead are received i

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HELL.

HELL.

Ques. How was Hell described? Ans. The entrance to the infernal regions was by a wide, dark cave, through which the departed souls were obliged to pass; they next came to a gloomy grove, and a black lake, called Avernus; this was overhung with such poisonous vapors that no birds could fly over it. The ferryman, Charon, was always waiting on the shore to carry the dead to the other side of the lake. The ghosts of those who had not been buried with funeral rites, were obliged to wander for a hundr

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FATES—FURIES.

FATES—FURIES.

Ques. Who were the Fates? Ans. They were three sisters, the daughters of Chaos, who were appointed to watch over the thread of human life. Their names were, Clotho, Lach´esis and At´ropos; Clotho drew the thread between her fingers; Lach´esis turned the wheel, and, at the appointed moment, At´ropos cut the thread with her scissors. Ques. Who were the Furies? Ans. They were three sisters, Alec´to, Tisi´phone, and Megæ´ra. They are called by the poets the Daughters of Night; their office was to to

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JUDGES OF THE DEAD. Punishments inflicted on the Condemned.

JUDGES OF THE DEAD. Punishments inflicted on the Condemned.

Ques. Besides Pluto, who were appointed judges of the dead? Ans. Minos, Rhadamanthus and Æ´acus. These were princes, who governed so justly during life, that the fate of the dead was entrusted to them. Ques. What offices were assigned to each? Ans. Rhadamanthus judged the Asiatics, Æ´acus the Europeans; and when a very difficult case arose it was referred to Minos. Ques. Who were the most famous among the condemned? Ans. The giants whom Jupiter conquered. Typhon was the most enormous; when he wa

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FABULOUS MONSTERS.

FABULOUS MONSTERS.

Ques. Were there any fabulous monsters besides those of Hell? Ans. Yes, many; the Centaurs, who were half man and half horse; also Geryon, who was king of the three Balearic Islands, now known as Ivica, Minorca and Majorca. For this reason, he was said to have three heads and three bodies, and passed into fable as a monster. He was probably a wicked and cruel prince. There were also the Harpies, which had the faces of women and the bodies of birds. Ques. What was the Chimæra? Ans. A fabulous mon

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PENATES—LARES.

PENATES—LARES.

Ques. What were the Pena´tes? Ans. This name was given to a certain class of household deities, which were worshipped by the Romans in the penetralia, or innermost part of their dwellings. The greater Pena´tes governed kingdoms and provinces; others presided over cities; and the lesser Pena´tes watched over particular houses and families. Ques. What were the Lares? Ans. They were, according to some, the children of Mercury and the nymph Lara; they were domestic gods, and presided over houses, st

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CHAPTER XXVI. Demigods and Heroes.

CHAPTER XXVI. Demigods and Heroes.

Ques. Who were the Demigods? Ans. They were brave men, who had rendered themselves famous in life by illustrious actions. After their death, their countrymen believed that they were admitted among the gods, and gave them divine honors. The circumstance of a mortal taking his place among the gods, was called an Apotheosis. Ques. Who was the most famous of the Demigods? Ans. Hercules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Juno hated him on his mother’s account, and resolved upon his destruction. For thi

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JASON.

JASON.

Ques. Who was Jason? Ans. He was the son of Æson, king of Thessaly, and was celebrated on account of his expedition in search of the Golden Fleece. He is also known as the husband of the famous sorceress Mede´a. Ques. What was the Golden Fleece? Ans. Phryxus, son of Athamas, king of Thebes, received from his mother a ram of a golden color, or, according to fable, with a fleece of pure gold. Some time after, Phryxus and his sister Helle, to escape from their step-mother Ino, attempted to cross th

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THESEUS.

THESEUS.

Ques. Who was Theseus? Ans. He was the son of Æ´geus, king of Athens. The Athenians were obliged to send every year, as tribute to Crete, seven of the noblest of their young men, and as many maidens. These were usually devoured by a horrible monster called Minotaur, whom Minos, the king of Crete, kept in the Labyrinth. Ques. What was the Labyrinth? Ans. It was a building with fifteen hundred rooms above ground, and as many underneath. These apartments had so many doors, and were connected by suc

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CASTOR AND POLLUX.

CASTOR AND POLLUX.

Ques. Who were Castor and Pollux? Ans. They were twin brothers, the sons of Jupiter and Leda. Castor was mortal like his mother, and when he died, Pollux grieved so much that Jupiter permitted him to share his immortality with his brother. It was arranged, therefore, that they should live every alternate day. Ques. What Constellation is named from these brothers? Ans. Gemini, or the Twins, the third sign of the Zodiac....

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PROMETHEUS.

PROMETHEUS.

Ques. Who was Prometheus? Ans. He was the son of Iapetus and Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He formed a man out of clay, and gave it life by means of fire which he stole from heaven. Ques. What pretty fable is connected with this? Ans. The poets tell us that Jupiter was so much displeased at the theft, that he sent Pando´ra to Prometheus with a mysterious box, in which were imprisoned all the evils which have since afflicted the human race. Prometheus, suspecting something wrong, refused to touc

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ORPHEUS.

ORPHEUS.

Ques. Who was Orpheus? Ans. He was the son of Apollo and the Muse Calliope. He played so sweetly on the lyre accompanying the music with his voice, that he tamed wild beasts, stayed the course of rivers, and drew the very trees to gather around him as he sung. Orpheus married the beautiful nymph Eury´dice; but on the very day of their nuptials she was stung in the foot by a venomous serpent, and died, leaving Orpheus overwhelmed with grief. Trusting to the magic of his lyre, he repaired to the i

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ARION.

ARION.

Ques. Who was Arion? Ans. He was a famous musician who resided at the court of Periander, king of Corinth. Impelled by a minstrel’s love of wandering, he felt desirous of visiting foreign countries, and departed from Corinth, notwithstanding the earnest solicitations of Periander, who warned him in vain of the danger to which he might be exposed. After some time spent in Italy and Sicily, Arion desired to return to Corinth, and embarked for this purpose at Sarentum, taking with him the riches th

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AMPHION.

AMPHION.

Ques. Who was Amphi´on? Ans. He was the son of Anti´ope and Jupiter. He obtained the kingdom of Thebes, which he governed conjointly with his twin-brother Zethus. Amphi´on cultivated the art of music; he was instructed by Mercury, who gave him a golden lyre with which he is said to have built the walls of Thebes, causing the stones to move and place themselves in order, as he played. Amphi´on married Ni´obe, and became the father of seven sons and as many daughters, who were all slain by Apollo

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ATLAS.

ATLAS.

Ques. Who was Atlas? Ans. He was a king of Mauritania, the son of the Titan Jap´etus, and the nymph Clym´ene; he was, therefore, brother of Prometheus. He is represented as sustaining the heavens on his shoulders. Atlas had been warned that he would suffer much from a son of Jupiter. When Perseus was returning from the conquest of the Gorgons, he arrived in the dominions of Atlas, of whom he claimed the rites of hospitality, declaring at the same time his divine parentage. The king, remembering

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ORION.

ORION.

Ques. Who was Ori´on? Ans. His origin is doubtful; according to some writers, he was the son of Neptune and Eury´ale. The accounts given of his exploits and of his death are many and contradictory. According to one legend, Ori´on was a famous hunter; having boasted that he could subdue the wildest and fiercest animals, the earth was displeased at his presumption, and sent a scorpion to sting him. The hero was changed, after death, into a constellation which is known as the most resplendent group

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PERSEUS.

PERSEUS.

Ques. Who was Perseus? Ans. He was the son of Jupiter, and of Danaë, the only daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. This prince had been warned by an oracle that his daughter would have a son, who was destined to deprive him of life. Acrisius resolved, in consequence, that Danaë should never marry. To guard against the possibility of such an event, he imprisoned her in a brazen apartment which he had diligently guarded. Jupiter had seen and admired the young princess, and he now found means to vi

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BELLEROPHON.

BELLEROPHON.

Ques. Who was Beller´ophon? Ans. This hero was the son of Glaucus, and grandson of Sis´yphus, king of Corinth. Having accidentally killed one of his relatives, he fled, as was usual in such circumstances, and was received with much kindness by Prœtus, king of Argos. Beller´ophon had not, however, been long at Argos when the king was prejudiced by a calumnious report, and became jealous of the young hero. As he was ashamed to violate the rights of hospitality, he despatched Beller´ophon to his fa

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DEUCALION.

DEUCALION.

Ques. Who was Deucalion? Ans. He was king of Thessaly, and son of Prometheus. During his reign, there occurred so great a flood that the whole earth was covered with the waters. Of the entire human race, only Deucalion and his wife, Pyrrha, were saved. When the waters abated, the ship in which they were carried rested upon Mount Parnassus, and they consulted the oracle of Themis, to know by what means the earth might again be peopled. The oracle directed that they should cast behind them the bon

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DÆDALUS.

DÆDALUS.

Ques. Who was Dæd´alus? Ans. He is said to have been a native of Athens, eminent for his skill in architecture and statuary. His nephew Perdix wrought with him, and showed much inventive genius. Having observed the teeth of a serpent, or, according to some, the backbone of a fish, Perdix invented the carpenter’s saw, and applied it to the cutting of timber. By this and other efforts of skill, the young man excited the jealousy of Dæd´alus, who killed him by casting him down from the summit of th

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CEYX—HALCYONE—THE HALCYON BIRDS.

CEYX—HALCYONE—THE HALCYON BIRDS.

Ques. Who was Ceyx? Ans. He was a king of Trachinia, who married Halcy´one, a daughter of the god Æolus. Ceyx was drowned on his way to consult the oracle of Claros. Halcy´one was apprised of the sad event in a dream, in which she saw her husband stand before her, with pallid countenance and dripping garments. She hastened to the strand at break of day, and gazing over the waters, beheld the body of Ceyx borne towards her by the waves. In her despair, she cast herself into the sea, but the gods

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MELEAGER—THE CALYDONIAN HUNT.

MELEAGER—THE CALYDONIAN HUNT.

Ques. What was the story of this prince? Ans. Meleager was the son of Œneus and Althea, king and queen of Calydon. After his birth, the Fates entered the chamber of Althea, and foretold that the life of the child should expire with a billet of wood then burning on the hearth. Althea immediately seized and quenched the brand, which she secured in an oaken chest. Meleager had already attained the years of manhood when he took part in the expedition generally known as the Calydonian hunt. Œneus had

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NISUS AND SCYLLA.

NISUS AND SCYLLA.

Ques. Relate the story of their transformation? Ans. Nisus was king of Megara; this city was closely besieged by Minos, but all his efforts were vain, as the Fates had decreed that it should not be taken, so long as a purple lock which grew on the head of Nisus, remained uncut. Scylla, the daughter of this prince, admired the majestic person of Minos, and the valor which he displayed. Believing that he would reward her treachery by making her his queen, she cut the fatal lock while her father sl

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ERISICHTHON.

ERISICHTHON.

Ques. Who was Erisichthon? Ans. He was a profane person and a despiser of the gods. There stood in a grove sacred to Ceres, a stately oak which overtopped the trees around as they did the garden shrubs. Erisichthon commanded his attendants to fell the tree, and when they hesitated, he snatched an axe himself, and struck the sacred wood. Blood flowed from the wounded trunk, and a voice from the Dryad dwelling in the oak, warned him of the punishment which awaited his impiety. Erisichthon persiste

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HOMER—HESIOD—VIRGIL—OVID.

HOMER—HESIOD—VIRGIL—OVID.

Ques. Who was Homer? Ans. Everything relating to this poet is involved in obscurity. The two biographies of him which were formerly attributed to Herodotus and Plutarch, are evidently fabulous; their real authors are not known. Nothing is known certainly regarding Homer’s parentage, his birth-place, or even the exact era in which he lived. Seven cities contended for the honor of having given this great poet to the world; these were Smyrna, Chios, Col´ophon, Sal´amis, Rhodes, Argos and Athens. Sm

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AGAMEMNON.

AGAMEMNON.

Ques. Who was Agamemnon? Ans. He was king of Mycenæ, and commander-in-chief of the Grecian forces during the siege of Troy. The combined fleet was detained for a long time at Aulis, owing to the wrath of Diana, whom Agamemnon had offended by killing one of her favorite deer. Calchas, the soothsayer, was consulted; he declared that the goddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Iphige´nia, the oldest daughter of the monarch. She was accordingly led to the altar, but Diana was moved with p

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ACHILLES.

ACHILLES.

Ques. Who was Achil´les? Ans. He was the son of Peleus, king of Phthio´tis in Thessaly; his mother was Thetis, a sea-goddess. Many incredible stories are told concerning the manner in which the hero was nursed in his infancy. According to one account, his mother designed to make him immortal, and for that purpose anointed him with ambrosia during the day, and laid him in the fire at night. The fears of Peleus interrupted this strange treatment, and Achil´les remained subject to death. Calchas ha

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ULYSSES.

ULYSSES.

Ques. Who was Ulys´ses? Ans. He was king of Ithaca, and had been, like many other princes of Greece, a suitor of the beautiful Helen. Believing that he had no hope for success among so many competitors, Ulys´ses asked the hand of Penel´ope, daughter of Icarus. His suit was granted; but when he was about to depart with his bride, Icarus was so much grieved, that he tried to persuade Penel´ope to remain with him, and not accompany her husband to Ithaca. Ulys´ses bade her act according to her incli

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ORESTES.

ORESTES.

Ques. Who was Orestes? Ans. He was the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. At the time of his father’s assassination, Orestes, then a child, was saved by his sister Electra, who sent him secretly to their uncle Strophius, king of Phocis. Here he formed a friendship with Pylades, the son of that monarch, which was so true and constant that it passed into a proverb. Orestes was urged by messages from his sister Electra, to avenge the murder of his father, and her counsels were confirmed by the resp

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HECTOR.

HECTOR.

Ques. Who was Hector? Ans. He was the son of Priam and Hec´uba, and the most valiant of all the Trojan chiefs who fought against the Greeks. The Fates had decreed that Troy should not be taken as long as Hector lived. The hero knew that he was destined to fall before the walls of his native city, and that he could at best only postpone the ruin of his country for a little time. Not discouraged by this, he performed prodigies of valor, and slew, with his own hand, Patroclus, the friend of Achil´l

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ŒDIPUS—ETEOCLES AND POLYNICES.

ŒDIPUS—ETEOCLES AND POLYNICES.

Ques. What was the story of these princes? Ans. Œdipus was the son of La´ius, king of Thebes. He was exposed by his father immediately on his birth, to avoid the fulfillment of an oracle which declared that La´ius was destined to fall by the hand of one of his children. Œdipus was found by a herdsman, who brought him to Pol´ybus, king of Corinth. This monarch was childless, and adopted the infant as his own. When Œdipus was grown to manhood, he desired to learn something of his real parentage, a

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ÆNEAS.

ÆNEAS.

Ques. Who was Æne´as? Ans. He was a Trojan chief, the son of Venus and Anchi´ses. He was born on Mount Ida, where he was nurtured by the Dryads until he had attained his fifth year, when he was brought to his father. Anchi´ses was not on friendly terms with the family of Priam, but this coldness did not prevent Æne´as from exerting himself to the utmost in defence of his country. Excepting Hector only, there was no Trojan who so distinguished himself by his valor. When Troy was taken, Æne´as mad

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SIBYLS—AUGURS.

SIBYLS—AUGURS.

Ques. Who were the Sibyls? Ans. The Sibyllæ, or Sibyls, were certain females, supposed to be inspired by Heaven, who flourished at different times and in different parts of the world. According to the historian Varro, they were ten in number. The most celebrated was the Cumæan Sibyl, of whom the poets give the following account. Apollo sought the love of the young prophetess, and promised to give her whatever she should demand. The sibyl desired that she might live as many years as she had grain

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ORACLES.

ORACLES.

Ques. What do you understand by oracles? Ans. The places where the heathen divinities were supposed to answer those who consulted them, were called oracles. This word was also applied to the responses given. Ques. Name some of the more famous oracles? Ans. Among the most celebrated were, the oracles of Jupiter at Dodo´na; of Apollo, at Delphi; of Trophonius, near Lebe´dea in Bœotia; of Jupiter Ammon, in the deserts of Lybia; of Æsculapius at Epidaurus; and the Castalian Fount. Ques. Describe the

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CLASSIC GAMES.

CLASSIC GAMES.

Ques. Why is a notice of these games appropriate in this place? Ans. Because they were closely connected with the religious observances of the Greeks. They were begun and ended with solemn sacrifices, and formed a part in the celebration of the principal festivals held in honor of the gods. These remarks apply also to the Greek drama. Ques. What games were solemnized in Greece? Ans. They were of four kinds: the Olympic, the Pythian, the Ne´mean, and the Isthmian. Ques. Who instituted the Olympic

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THEATRES.

THEATRES.

Ques. Did the theatrical representations of the Greeks resemble those of modern times? Ans. They differed widely, both in the arrangement of the drama, and the mode of representation. The greatest distinction lay, perhaps, in the structure of the theatre itself. Ques. Describe the general plan of a Greek theatre? Ans. It was quite open above, and the dramas were always acted in the light of day, beneath the bright canopy of a southern heaven. The Romans at a later period introduced awnings to sc

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CELEBRATED STATUES.

CELEBRATED STATUES.

Ques. What are the most celebrated statues of the heathen divinities? Ans. The Olympian Jupiter, the Apollo Belvidere, the Diana à la Biche, the Minerva of the Parthenon and the Venus de Medicis. Ques. What was the Olympian Jupiter? Ans. This statue, now lost, was forty feet in height, on a pedestal of twelve feet. It was considered the finest work of art of the great Athenian sculptor, Phidias, and there are still in existence busts taken from it, which are remarkable for their calm majesty of

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OSIRIS—APIS—SERAPIS—ISIS—ANUBIS—HARPOCRATES.

OSIRIS—APIS—SERAPIS—ISIS—ANUBIS—HARPOCRATES.

Ques. Who was Osiris? Ans. Osiris, Apis and Serapis, are three different names of one and the same god. Osiris was the son of Jupiter and of Niobe, the daughter of Phoroneus. He conquered Egypt, which he governed so well and wisely as to receive divine honors from his subjects even during his life. He married, as we have already learned, Io, the daughter of Inachus, who was more generally known to the Egyptians by the name of Isis. Osiris was cruelly murdered by his brother Typhon. Isis, after a

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BAAL, OR BEL—MOLOCH.

BAAL, OR BEL—MOLOCH.

Ques. Who were these divinities? Ans. The names Baal and Moloch seem to have been, at first, different appellations of the Sun; later they assumed another signification, and were applied to distinct deities. Ques. Where was the Sun worshipped under the name of Baal or Bel (the Lord)? Ans. In Babylon. The famous tower of Babel or Belus, was there devoted to his worship, although the highest apartment of the edifice served also as an observatory, and was the repository of the most ancient astronom

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MOLOCH.

MOLOCH.

Ques. Who was Moloch? Ans. He was a divinity of the Ammonites. The Phœnicians were also particularly devoted to his worship. Young children and infants were offered as holocausts to this cruel god. These horrid sacrifices were most frequent in Carthage. When the Sicilian Agathocles threatened that city, we are told that five hundred infants, many the first-born of noble parents, were consumed in one day on the altar of Moloch. Ques. How was this god represented? Ans. By a brazen image, which was

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THAMMUZ.

THAMMUZ.

Ques. Who was Thammuz? Ans. This was another name for Adonis, whose story is of Eastern origin. His death, which we have already referred to in connection with the goddess Venus, is said to have taken place in the mountains of Libanus, from which the river Adonis flows to the sea. The Assyrian women mourned for him in the autumn-time. It was believed that at this season the river changed its color, and ran red, as if tinged with blood. To this Milton alludes: The prophet Ezekiel, in relating the

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OANNES.

OANNES.

Ques. Who was Oannes? Ans. He was a god of the Assyrians, half man, half fish, who was said to dwell in the sea, from which he came at stated times, to instruct the Babylonians in wisdom and science. Oannes is the Dagon of the Philistines....

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PERSIA.

PERSIA.

Ques. What was the religion of the ancient Persians? Ans. We derive our knowledge of their religion principally from their Zend-avesta, or Sacred Book. Ques. What does the Zend-avesta contain? Ans. The doctrines of Zoroaster, an Eastern sage, who is thought to have lived in Bactria about twelve hundred years before our era. Ques. Was the Zend-avesta written by Zoroaster? Ans. But a small portion, if any, of the Sacred Books were written by him, but the most ancient passages, which are in verse,

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BRAHMA—THE VEDAS.

BRAHMA—THE VEDAS.

Ques. What are the Vedas? Ans. The Vedas are the Sacred Books of the Hindoos, and are much reverenced by them. They maintain that they were composed by Brahma, the Supreme Deity, at the creation. Ques. When do the Hindoos think that the world was created? Ans. At an incredibly remote period; they say the present arrangement of the Vedas was made by a sage named Vyasa, some five thousand years ago. Ques. What is the more correct opinion? Ans. That they were written in the second thousand years be

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BUDDHA.

BUDDHA.

Ques. Who was Buddha? Ans. Buddha is said by the Vedas to have been a delusive incarnation of Vishnu, but his followers give a different account. Ques. What do they say? Ans. They say that he was a mortal sage, called Guatama, and also Buddha, or the Wise. Ques. When did Buddha live? Ans. We cannot ascertain exactly, but it is probable he was a contemporary of Solomon—that is, he lived about one thousand years before our era. He was the son of a king, and was distinguished by wisdom, virtue and

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CHINA.

CHINA.

Ques. Is Buddhism universally followed in China? Ans. There is, strictly speaking, no state or national religion in China, but all forms of worship are tolerated, unless they are considered politically dangerous. Among the pagan Chinese three principal religions are admitted, which are now considered equally good, although there were formerly bitter wars between their followers. Ques. What are these? Ans. The first, of which Confucius is in some sort the founder, is called the “Doctrine of the L

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THE GRAND LAMA.

THE GRAND LAMA.

Ques. What is the prevailing religion of Thibet? Ans. Buddhism prevails in Thibet and Tartary. The people of these countries are more thoughtful than the Chinese, and more earnest with regard to religious matters. Their priests, called Lamas, live together in large communities. They are given to study, and their dwellings, or Lamaseries, often contain large and valuable libraries. Many of the Lamas are addicted to demon worship and sorcery, but these are generally looked upon with aversion by th

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THOR.

THOR.

Ques. Who was Thor? Ans. He was Odin’s eldest son, and was god of thunder. His mighty strength depended upon three things—his hammer, his belt of strength, and his iron gloves. The giants at one time obtained his hammer, and he was obliged to use a very singular stratagem to recover it. Ques. What was this? Ans. Thor was most anxious to recover his hammer, but the giant Thrym had buried it eight fathoms deep under the rocks of Jotunheim. Loki undertook to negotiate with Thrym; but the giant dema

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FREY AND FREYA.

FREY AND FREYA.

Ques. Who was Frey? Ans. He was one of the greatest of the gods. He presided over rain, sunshine, and the fruits of the earth. From his name comes our word Friday. Ques. Who was Freya? Ans. She was the sister of Frey or Freyr. She loved music, Spring and flowers, and was a friend of the elves, or good fairies. Freya was invoked by lovers, and seems to have been a sort of Scandinavian Venus....

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BRAGI.

BRAGI.

Ques. Who was Bragi? Ans. He was god of poetry, but he scorned all lighter strains, and was the patron of those only who sung the praises of the gods and the deeds of warriors. Iduna, his wife, kept in a casket certain apples which the gods, when they felt age approaching, had only to taste to renew the vigor and bloom of youth. On the approach of the Great Twilight, and the end of time, this fruit was to lose its magic power....

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HEIMDALL.

HEIMDALL.

Ques. Who was Heimdall? Ans. He was the watchman of the gods, and was stationed at the extreme verge of heaven to guard the bridge Bifrost. The gods continually feared that the giants might force their way over the shining arch, and invade Valhalla. Heimdall required less sleep than a bird, and his sight was so keen that he could distinguish the smallest object, for a thousand leagues around, even in the darkest night. His quickness of hearing was equally wonderful; he could hear the wool growin

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VIDAR.

VIDAR.

Ques. Who was Vidar? Ans. He was the god of silence. His strength was almost equal to that of Thor; he was often employed like Mercury as messenger of the gods. He had sandals which sustained him equally in the air, and upon the water....

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HODUR.

HODUR.

Ques. Who was Hodur? Ans. He was a blind deity, endowed with prodigious strength. He was mild and benevolent, but certain terrible predictions concerning him inspired such terror in Asgard that it was not lawful for any god to pronounce his name. Hodur seems to have been a personification of night....

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THE VALKYRIOR.

THE VALKYRIOR.

Ques. Who are the Valkyrior? Ans. According to the Scandinavian tradition, they are warlike virgins, the messengers of Odin, and their name signifies “Choosers of the slain.” Odin is desirous of collecting a great many heroes in Valhalla, that he may be able to meet the giants in the final contest at the end of the world. He sends the Valkyrior, therefore, to every battle field to make choice of those who shall be slain. When they ride forth on their errand, mounted upon war steeds and in full a

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LOKI AND HIS PROGENY.

LOKI AND HIS PROGENY.

Ques. Who was Loki? Ans. Loki was an evil deity, the contriver of all fraud and mischief. He was very handsome, but of fickle and malicious temper. Loki had three children, the wolf Fenris, the Midgard serpent, and Hela, or Death. The gods were not ignorant that these monsters were growing up, and would one day bring much evil upon gods and men. Odin, therefore, sent a messenger to bring them to him. When they came, he threw the serpent into the deep ocean by which the earth is surrounded. The m

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BALDUR THE GOOD.

BALDUR THE GOOD.

Ques. Who was Baldur? Ans. He was the son of Odin, good and exceedingly beautiful. He was tormented by terrible dreams, indicating that his life was in peril. He told these things to the assembled gods, who resolved to do all in their power to protect him. Frigga, the wife of Odin, exacted an oath from the elements, fire, air, water, and from everything animate and inanimate upon the earth—stones, plants, rocks and animals—that they would do no harm to Baldur. The gods were so well satisfied wit

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DRUIDISM.

DRUIDISM.

Ques. From what is the term Druid derived? Ans. There exists much difference of opinion on this point. The word has been variously deduced from the Saxon, “dry,” a magician, from the German, “druthin,” a master or lord, from the Celtic, “deru,” an oak, etc. The best informed writers now refer it to the compound Celtic word “derouyd,” from “De,” God, and “rouyd,” speaking. It would, therefore, seem to signify those who speak of or for God. Ques. Where did Druidism prevail? Ans. In some parts of G

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MYTHOLOGY OF THE AZTECS.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE AZTECS.

Ques. What peculiarity has been remarked in the mythology of the Aztecs or ancient Mexicans? Ans. Its incongruity. On the one hand we find their priests inculcating the most sublime truths of natural religion, and the purest maxims of morality, while on the other, their sacrifices and public worship were marked by a spirit of unexampled ferocity. Ques. How has this been explained? Ans. It is supposed that the religion of the Aztecs was derived from two distinct sources. The ancient Toltecs, who

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PERU.

PERU.

Ques. What deities were worshipped by the ancient Peruvians? Ans. Like most of the races inhabiting the American continent, the Peruvians believed in one Supreme God, immaterial and infinite. This sublime doctrine did not, however, lead to the practical results that might have been expected. Ques. What name did the Peruvians give to this Supreme deity? Ans. He was adored under the different names of Pachacamac and Viracocha. They raised no temples in his honor; that which stood near the present

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ÆSCHYLUS,

ÆSCHYLUS,

The earliest of the Greek dramatists, was born at Eleusis in Attica, 525 B. C. He distinguished himself in the battles of Marathon, Salamis and Platæa. Æschylus has been called the father of Grecian tragedy, as he was the first to give rules to the dialogue, and define the duties of the chorus; he also planned the dress of the actors, the scenery and the whole mechanism of the stage. Æschylus wrote sixty-six dramas, in thirteen of which he obtained the victory over all his competitors. He was at

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CÆSAR (Caius Julius),

CÆSAR (Caius Julius),

The Roman general and dictator, holds a high rank among Latin authors. During the most active period of his life, he found time to devote to literary pursuits. Of the works written by him on various subjects, both in prose and verse, we have only his “Commentaries,” in ten books. Seven of these treat of the Gallic war, the rest contain an account of the Civil war. The hurry of military expeditions did not prevent this extraordinary man from observing closely the manners and customs of the differ

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CICERO.

CICERO.

A Roman orator and statesman. He filled the highest offices in the gift of his country, and took so prominent a part in public affairs, that an account of his life would be also a history of his times. Cicero wrote on the art of public speaking, on philosophy and jurisprudence. This great man, who had saved Rome from the plots of Catiline, and rendered many other signal services to his country, was basely murdered by the order of the second Triumvirate, in the year 43 B. C....

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DEMOSTHENES.

DEMOSTHENES.

A famous Athenian orator, who defended the liberties of his country against the aggressions of Philip of Macedon....

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DIODORUS,

DIODORUS,

Surnamed Siculus, from Sicily, his birth-place. He was a celebrated historian, contemporary with Julius Cæsar and Augustus. He wrote a “General History” in forty books, of which we have now fifteen entire, with scattered fragments of the others. Diodorus devoted thirty years to this great work....

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EURIPIDES,

EURIPIDES,

A Greek tragedian, was born in 480 B. C., on the day rendered famous by the victory of Salamis. After gaining a high reputation as a dramatist, Euripides retired to Macedon, to the court of King Archelaûs. On the death of the poet, the Athenians begged that his body might be sent to Athens for interment. This request Archelaûs refused, and Euripides was buried with much pomp at Pella, in Macedon. This poet is inferior to Æschylus and Sophocles, not only in dignity of sentiment, but in the moral

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HERODOTUS,

HERODOTUS,

Who has been called the Father of History, was born at Halicarnassus, 484 B. C. He spent many years travelling through Europe, Asia and Africa, observing everywhere the manners and customs of the people, and collecting materials for his great work. His account of the Persian war is full of interest, and won for him great popularity among his countrymen. Herodotus relates many things which seem strange, and even incredible; but these are either traditions of remote times, or accounts received fro

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JUSTIN (Saint).

JUSTIN (Saint).

A Christian writer of the second century. He is principally celebrated for his “Apology for the Christians,” addressed to the Emperor Antoninus. It is written in a style at once eloquent and persuasive, and it is believed that it had the desired effect, and was the immediate cause of the edict issued by Antoninus in favor of the Christians. St. Justin addressed a second Apology to Marcus Aurelius, but with far different success. This Emperor was too much under the influence of the heathen philos

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JUVENAL.

JUVENAL.

A Roman poet of the first century. He was born in the reign of Caligula, but the exact date is not known. Juvenal is celebrated for his satires, in which he attacked the vices and follies of his day, not sparing the emperors themselves where their conduct was deserving of reproach. Hadrian believed that one of the satires of Juvenal was directed against himself; he had not the magnanimity to overlook the offence, and Juvenal was exiled to Lybia, where he died soon after....

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MÆCENAS.

MÆCENAS.

Minister and favorite of the Emperor Augustus. He was distinguished for the wisdom of his counsels, and his rare abilities as a statesman. Although himself an indifferent poet, he was still a patron of literature and literary men; Virgil, Horace, Ovid and other celebrated writers of the Augustan age, were among his most intimate friends. Such was the care with which Mæcenas sought out and rewarded every species of merit, that his name is proverbially used to denote a generous patron. Admirable i

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PELASGI.

PELASGI.

A name given to the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. They founded colonies in Asia Minor, the islands of the Ægean Sea, and in Italy. The Cyclopean remains in these countries are generally attributed to the Pelasgi. These structures are remarkable for the immense size of the stones of which they are built....

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PLINIUS, (Secundus C.)

PLINIUS, (Secundus C.)

A Roman writer, generally known as Pliny the Elder; is equally celebrated as a historian and a naturalist. It is not easy to understand how one man could have followed so many different avocations, filled high offices under different emperors, and yet have found time for such a vast amount of composition. While still quite young, Pliny served in Germany, where he commanded a troop of cavalry; he afterwards practised as a pleader at the Roman bar, filled the office of procurator in Spain, and we

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PROCOPIUS.

PROCOPIUS.

One of the most celebrated historians of the Eastern Empire. He flourished during the reigns of Justin the Elder and Justinian, and accompanied Belisarius as secretary on his military expeditions....

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SIMONIDES.

SIMONIDES.

This poet excelled particularly in elegiac verse. When the most distinguished poets of Greece wrote verses in honor of those who fell at Marathon, the elegy of Simonides took the prize, although Æschylus was one of the competitors. The compositions of the great tragedian were deficient in the tenderness and pathos for which Simonides was particularly distinguished. The lament of Danaë, and a few scattered fragments, are all that remain of his verses, but these are sufficient to prove that his re

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SOPHOCLES.

SOPHOCLES.

Was the second in order of time of the great tragic poets of Greece. In true dramatic excellence, he is generally considered the first. The poet was only sixteen when he was selected to lead the chorus of Athenian youths who celebrated with lyre and song the erection of the trophy in honor of the victory at Salamis. In his twenty-fifth year, he carried off the tragic prize from Æschylus. He gained the same triumph over other competitors, taking the first prize on twenty-four different occasions.

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STRABO.

STRABO.

A celebrated geographer, born at Amaseia, in Pontus, about the year 24, B. C. He spent many years in travelling, at first for his own gratification, and in the pursuit of knowledge, but afterwards by the order of Augustus. He was already advanced in life when he compiled his great work on geography. It is divided into seventeen books, and contains much valuable and interesting information with regard to the manners and customs of the nations he had visited. Little was known at that time of the e

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TITICACA.

TITICACA.

A lake in Bolivia, celebrated for the ruins of Tiahuanico on its shores. They stand on an eminence which, from the water-marks surrounding it, seems to have been formerly an island in the lake. So great a change has taken place, that the level of the lake is now 135 feet lower, and its shores 12 miles distant. These ruins are believed to be the most ancient on the American continent. The Peruvians knew nothing of their origin, but had a vague tradition that they were built by giants in a single

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VARRO.

VARRO.

A Latin writer, celebrated for his extensive learning. He is said to have composed five hundred volumes, all of which are now lost, with the exception of two treatises; one on agriculture, the other on the Latin language. The latter is dedicated to Cicero, an intimate friend of the author. The life of Varro was eventful: he was favored by Julius Cæsar, proscribed by Antony, and passed his later years in literary ease under the protection of Augustus. Speaking of Varro, St. Augustine says, that “

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