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TEXTILE FIBERS USED IN EASTERN ABORIGINAL NORTH AMERICA
TEXTILE FIBERS USED IN EASTERN ABORIGINAL NORTH AMERICA
By A. C. Whitford By Order of the Trustees of THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY New York City 1941 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY In 1906 the present series of Anthropological Papers was authorized by the Trustees of the Museum to record the results of research conducted by the Department of Anthropology. The series comprises octavo volumes of about 350 pages each, issued in parts at irregular intervals. Previous to 1906 articles devoted to anthropologic
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INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The author of this paper has studied the vegetable fibers used in fabricating objects in the ethnological and archaeological collections from the Indian tribes of the Mississippi drainage and eastward, now in the American Museum. The first task was to identify them and view them against the background of existing textile knowledge. The present paper reports these identifications and comments upon fiber samples from collections in other museums. The writing of this paper would have been impossibl
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ARECACEAE, Reichenb. (Palm Family)
ARECACEAE, Reichenb. (Palm Family)
The palmetto ( Sabal palmetto , Walt.) seems to have been an article of commerce as it was used by the Winnebago and the Iroquois, north of its northern limit of distribution. It was also used by the Cherokee. The Winnebago used the fiber in the production of stiff cords for their bags. In three bags in the American Museum the stiff cords are made from this material (50-7531). For burden straps the Iroquois used this fiber to produce stiff strong cords which were covered with cotton or other sof
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BROMELIACEAE, J. St. Hil. (Pineapple Family)
BROMELIACEAE, J. St. Hil. (Pineapple Family)
This Florida moss ( Tillandsia usneoides , L.) was found in specimens from the Southern States only. The Koasati and the people who built certain mounds in Florida used it frequently. A specimen in the United States National Museum from the Parish Mound, Number 2, in Florida, consisted of a bunch of loose material. The Koasati material is in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, and is represented by fibers from a blanket and threads on a spindle (1-8551)....
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DRACAENACEAE, Link. (Yucca Family)
DRACAENACEAE, Link. (Yucca Family)
Yucca ( Yucca arkansana , Trelease) was encountered in one specimen from the Arkansas Bluff culture in a bundle of loose fiber (MAIHF 11-7429). Yucca ( Yucca filamentosa , L.) was found once in a heavy cord made by the cave and shelter people of Ohio (OSHAM 332-42) Nolina georgiana , Michx., was found in two specimens, a moccasin (OSHAM 332) and a bristle-like fiber from the Spiro Mound (2718-K, Trowbridge Collection). It is possible that this plant may have been used very frequently in objects
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JUNIPERACEAE, Horan (Juniper Family)
JUNIPERACEAE, Horan (Juniper Family)
Red cedar ( Juniperus virginiana , L.) was encountered in only one specimen, a bag made by the Potawatomi Indians (AMNH 50.1-7096)....
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POACACEAE, R. Br. (Grass Family)
POACACEAE, R. Br. (Grass Family)
The grass family was the most commonly and widely used of any of the monocotyledonous families. Big blue stem grass ( Andropogon furcatus , Muhl.) was one of the major fibrous plants used by the cave and rock-shelter peoples of Ohio in the construction of coarsely woven articles, such as rope and moccasins. It was commonly used without preliminary treatment, but was simply twisted or braided into strands. The specimens examined were from the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum. A typ
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TYPHACEAE, J. St. Hil. (Cat-tail Family)
TYPHACEAE, J. St. Hil. (Cat-tail Family)
The cat-tail ( Typha latifolia , L.) was observed in a mat found in the caves of Tennessee (USNM 132252)....
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ZEA MAYS, L. (Indian Corn)
ZEA MAYS, L. (Indian Corn)
Indian corn occurred only once. This single occurrence has no real significance as to the frequency of its use, for all specimens in which it was obvious that corn was the material used were not sampled. The sample noted here was found in a knife made by the Micmac Indians (McGU H76). The material was a cornstalk which had been subjected to considerable pressure to force out the juice and pith to bring the hardy flinty layers into juxtaposition. It was then used as a wedge to fasten the knife ha
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ANONACEAE, D. C. (Custard-Apple Family)
ANONACEAE, D. C. (Custard-Apple Family)
The pawpaw ( Asimina triloba , L.) seems to have been universally used by all the tribes who lived where it flourished. Its use was apparently limited only by its distribution, for it was encountered sixteen times in the prehistoric material examined from Kentucky, Arkansas, and Ohio, as well as in historic objects made by the Menomini and Wisconsin Potawatomi. In the University of Wisconsin Museum is a bunch of prepared fiber (16422) from the caves of Kentucky. This fiber was commonly used by t
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APOCYNACEAE, Lindl. (Dog-bane Family)
APOCYNACEAE, Lindl. (Dog-bane Family)
The genera Apocynum is represented by both the species indigenous to the territory surveyed, but as Indian hemp is one of them, it was rather surprising how infrequently they were encountered. Only ten examples of its use were found. This plant ( Apocynum androsaemifolium , L.) which is called dog-bane is so similar in appearance and properties that it might well have been and was used indiscriminately with Indian hemp ( Apocynum cannabinum , L.). The species was found three times in material ex
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ASCLEPIADACEAE, Lindl. (Milkweed Family)
ASCLEPIADACEAE, Lindl. (Milkweed Family)
The milkweed family is represented by four species of Asclepias , namely, tuberosa , pulchra , incarnata , and syriaca . These fibers were used in the manufacture of fine threads and cords. In both archaeological and recent Indian material the fibers were well prepared before use. In the archaeological objects it is possible that the fibers were collected in the spring, after retting by the weather; in any event, they all show that they have been freed to a large extent of their cementitious mat
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BETULACEAE, Agardh. (Birch Family)
BETULACEAE, Agardh. (Birch Family)
The paper birch ( Betula papyrifera , Marsh.) was encountered in one specimen (AMNH 50.2-1792). The bark was untreated, simply twisted into a cord. In a specimen of Iroquois horsehair embroidery (McGU H49) the bark had received no preliminary treatment, but was used in the raw state....
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CANNABINACEAE, Lindl. (Hop Family)
CANNABINACEAE, Lindl. (Hop Family)
This introduced plant, hemp ( Cannabis sativa , L.), was found in four specimens, evidently made in post-Columbian times as the plant is not indigenous to the Western Hemisphere, but was introduced by the colonists at a very early date. It was found in a bag (MPM 28116) made by the Wisconsin Potawatomi Indians. A bowstring on an Algonkin bow (AMNH 50.2-4221A) is made from this fiber as are also portions of an Oneida burden strap (AMNH 50.1-1800)....
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DAPHNACEAE (Mezereon Family)
DAPHNACEAE (Mezereon Family)
This moose or leatherwood fiber ( Dirca palustris , L.) was encountered eleven times in as widely separated states as Arkansas and Wisconsin. It was used both in the raw state, as strips twisted into cord, and as treated fiber in finer cords and threads. A prehistoric mat made by the inhabitants of Bushwick Cave, Arkansas, is composed of this material (MAIHF 19-4635). Cloth of the Adena culture made, in part, from this bast fiber (1200) is in the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum.
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JUGLANDACEAE, Lindl. (Walnut Family)
JUGLANDACEAE, Lindl. (Walnut Family)
The bast from the black walnut ( Juglans nigra , L.) was encountered twice in burden straps from the Iroquois (Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation). These fibers had apparently been previously treated, both chemically and mechanically. They were probably boiled in ashes, pounded, and then straightened so as to make them usable in twisting cord and thread. One such specimen in the above Museum carries the catalogue number 16-5208....
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LINACEAE, Dumort. (Flax Family)
LINACEAE, Dumort. (Flax Family)
Common flax ( Linum usitatissimum , L.) is another example of introduced fibers used by the Indians in post-Columbian times. The fiber was probably secured in trade. It was found in five specimens made by the Winnebago, Potawatomi, Michigan, Ottawa, and Delaware Indians. In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a bag (14619), made by the Winnebago and composed entirely of flax cords. In a Delaware burden strap (50-7191) in this Museum the fine cords are linen, but the coarse cords are milkweed, Asclepi
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MALVACEAE, Neck. (Mallow Family)
MALVACEAE, Neck. (Mallow Family)
As was to be expected, cotton ( Gossypium herbaceum , L.) became the most commonly and universally used of any of the fibers after it was introduced east of the Mississippi River. No specimen was encountered in the prehistoric material, but after its introduction and sale by traders it was the most commonly used fiber. It does not seem advisable to discuss these uses in detail, suffice it to say that it served all purposes for which string and thread are utilized....
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SALICACEAE, Lindl. (Willow Family)
SALICACEAE, Lindl. (Willow Family)
Black willow ( Salix nigra , Marsh.). This species of black willow was used by the Menomini, Winnebago, Michigan Ottawa, and Ojibway Indians in the manufacture of bags, pouches, fish nets, and cord. A Menomini bag (MAIHF 8-1136) and a similar Winnebago bag (AMNH 50.1-903) contain black willow fiber. A Micmac fish spear (AMNH 50-4754) is wrapped with black willow twine. In the preparation of black willow fiber the bark was obviously stripped from the tree. Then the inner white bast tissue was rem
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TILIACEAE, Juss. (Basswood Family)
TILIACEAE, Juss. (Basswood Family)
The bast layer from the basswood ( Tilia americana , L.) seems to have been the fiber most commonly and universally used by the Eastern Indians, for it was encountered fifty-two times, in all areas from which specimens were obtained, with the exception of the extreme south. It was utilized for nearly all purposes, from the manufacture of bags to textiles. In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a Menomini bag (4586) made from the Tilia bast, carefully and thoroughly prepared to remove the gums and ren
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ULMACEAE, Mirbel. (Elm Family)
ULMACEAE, Mirbel. (Elm Family)
The slippery elm ( Ulmus fulva , Michx.) was found three times. Once, in a burden strap made by the Iroquois Indians (AMNH 50-6680) in which the fibers had received some preliminary treatment to soften them and remove much of the natural gum. Two other specimens, both rather coarsely woven fabrics from mounds of the Hopewell culture (OSHAM 283 and 125) were in the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum. The American elm ( Ulmus americana , L.) was encountered only once in an Iroquois bu
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UMBELLIFERAE
UMBELLIFERAE
The eryngium ( Eryngium yuccaefolium , Michx.) was commonly used by the prehistoric tribes of the area in which it occurs. It was found fifty-five times in material from the caves and rock-shelters of Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. Its parallel veined long leaves lend themselves to all uses as readily as the yuccas of the south and west. It is easily shredded or it can be used entire with equal facility. The stem contains a very strong bast fiber which was also utilized. It does not se
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URTICACEAE, Reichenb. (Nettle Family)
URTICACEAE, Reichenb. (Nettle Family)
The nettle family is represented by three genera, Boehmeria , Urtica , and Laportea . Specimens of these three were encountered forty-eight times, so it seems to have been one of the most important families as a source of fibrous materials. The tissues were, almost without exception, treated before use. The stingless nettle ( Boehmeria cylindrica , L.) was used by practically all the Indian tribes covered by this survey. It was invariably more or less treated, with the possible exception of some
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OBJECTS FROM SPIRO MOUND, OKLAHOMA
OBJECTS FROM SPIRO MOUND, OKLAHOMA
The well-known Spiro Mound, clearly prehistoric, furnished some examples of basketry, matting, cord, and cloth. The samples were sent to the writer by Mr. H. M. Trowbridge, Bethel, Kansas. A comparison of materials in prehistoric collections reveals an excess of animal materials in the artifacts from Spiro Mound. One gets the impression that in Spiro textiles strings of vegetable fiber are usually surfaced with hair or other animal materials to increase the softness of the product. This may acco
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SUMMARY
SUMMARY
This survey makes no pretension of being complete, but it is an adequate sampling of the fibers utilized by the Eastern Indians and illustrates their resourcefulness in exploiting the raw materials at hand. It is noticeable that they used a great variety of plants and that one of the determining properties or qualifications was the local abundance of a plant. There seems to have been a tendency to use the monocotyledonous plants and the bast from the trees for coarser work and the diocotyledonou
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FIBER PLANTS AS IDENTIFIED
FIBER PLANTS AS IDENTIFIED
Selected objects in museum collections to show the range and frequencies in the use of vegetable fibers, including geographical and chronological distributions. The objects from the Ohio State Historical and Archaeological Museum are all prehistoric. In other museums prehistoric objects are marked with an asterisk (*)....
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Peabody Museum, Harvard University
Peabody Museum, Harvard University
Transcriber’s Note Variant spelling is preserved as printed. Minor punctuation errors have been repaired. On page 17 , the common name for Eryngium yuccaefolium is omitted from the table ‘Fiber Plants as Identified.’ It is typically identified as button eryngo, button snake-root or rattlesnake master. The omission in the table is preserved as printed. On page 21 , there is nothing in the ‘Tribe or location’ column for the bag, 19-7125, in the table ‘Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation
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