48 chapters
5 hour read
Selected Chapters
48 chapters
PREHISTORIC INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST
PREHISTORIC INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST
by H. M. WORMINGTON Curator of Archaeology SEAL OF COLORADO MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY · 1900 NIL SINE NUMINE APPENDIX: OUTSTANDING EXHIBIT-SITES, MODERN PUEBLOS, LOCAL MUSEUMS By Erik K. Reed Regional Archaeologist, National Park Service THE DENVER MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Denver, Colorado Popular Series No. 7 Seventh Printing, 1966 First Edition, 1947...
21 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
PREFACE
PREFACE
During the past 25,000 years the Southwest has been invaded many times. Now each year comes a fresh invasion—an invasion of those who have succumbed to its beauty and strange, inexplicable charm. There is something infectious about the magic of the Southwest. Some are immune to it, but there are others who have no resistance to the subtle virus and who must spend the rest of their lives dreaming of the incredible sweep of the desert, of great golden mesas with purple shadows, and tremendous star
4 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
Before beginning any discussion of the Southwest it is best to decide exactly what we mean by the word, for it means many things to many people. For the geographer it has one meaning, for the economist another, and for those who study its ancient inhabitants still another. It is in the latter sense that we shall interpret it. To the archaeologist, that is, to the scientist who studies and seeks to interpret the life and times of prehistoric man, the Southwest usually means New Mexico, Arizona, s
16 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Sandia
Sandia
The earliest culture of the Western Hemisphere, about which we have any information, is the Sandia , [64] so named because the cave whose deposits showed that it had been occupied by men about 25,000 years ago is located in the Sandia Mountains of New Mexico. In the bottom layer of this cave were found fairly large, crudely flaked stone spear points with a more or less leaflike shape and a slight basal inset on one side. With these points were found bones of prehistoric horse, bison, camel, mast
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Folsom
Folsom
The most famous of the ancient cultures is the Folsom whose name is derived from the town of Folsom, New Mexico, near which the first generally accepted American discovery of man-made objects associated with the bones of extinct animals was made. [25] Prior to this find, which was made in 1926, it had been believed that man had not reached the New World more than a few thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era. At the Folsom site, however, were found finely flaked projectile point
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
San Jon
San Jon
Probably contemporaneous with the Folsom people were others who made thick, roughly flaked, square-based points with parallel sides. These points were first found near the town of San Jon, New Mexico, and are named after it. [114]...
10 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Yuma
Yuma
From a somewhat later period we have evidence of ancient hunters who made some of the most beautifully flaked stone projectile points that have ever been created. These points, which were first found in Yuma County, Colorado, are known as Yuma or Parallel Flaked Points . They are of two types. [130] One is marked by the removal of long narrow spalls running obliquely across the blade and the other is characterized by the removal of shell-shaped spalls from either side which tends to give the poi
26 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Gypsum Cave
Gypsum Cave
Evidence of another early hunting culture of the Southwest was found in Gypsum Cave, Nevada. [47] Here were found lozenge-shaped projectile points, about two inches long, with small convex stems. They were associated with the remains of now extinct ground sloth and llamalike camels. The time of the first occupation of Gypsum Cave may have been several thousand years B.C. One thing which makes this find of particular interest is that, due to the protection afforded by the cave, some normally peri
43 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Cochise
Cochise
While hunters roamed the plains farther north there were other people, with a different type of economy, living in what is now southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. [118] This culture , to which the name Cochise has been given, is believed to have begun over 10,000 years ago and to have lasted until 500 B.C. or later. The chief characteristic of the Cochise culture is the extensive use of grinding stones which suggests that the people were primarily dependent on the gathering of wild
3 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Tabeguache Cave
Tabeguache Cave
In the Tabeguache drainage of southwestern Colorado have been found caves containing stratified deposits, the lowest of which are believed to be quite old although considerably more recent than the really ancient cultures previously discussed. [66] [67] These deposits contained lined and unlined firepits and there were little holes, dug in the cave floor, filled with ashes and charcoal. These are thought to have been too small to have served any utilitarian purpose and it has been suggested that
58 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
GENERAL REMARKS
GENERAL REMARKS
Once we pass on to a time which is separated from our own by hundreds instead of thousands of years we are on firmer ground. Two main basic cultures have been differentiated by archaeologists and it now seems probable that two more may be recognized. The best known and the first to be considered is often called the Anasazi. This is a Navajo name for the “ancient ones” and is applied to the prehistoric inhabitants of the plateau area of the Southwest which includes the drainages of the San Juan,
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE BASKETMAKER PERIOD[1]
THE BASKETMAKER PERIOD[1]
The first evidence of the Basketmaker people was discovered in 1893 when ninety bodies accompanied by a great many finely woven baskets were found in a cave in Butler Wash in southeastern Utah. It was apparent that these people were older than the builders of the cliff houses, and of a different culture , and the profusion of baskets led to the term, Basketmakers, being applied to them to differentiate them from the later people. The name soon found its way into scientific literature and has con
28 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE MODIFIED-BASKETMAKER PERIOD[1]
THE MODIFIED-BASKETMAKER PERIOD[1]
During the succeeding period, there was a continuation of the same basic culture , but there was great development and sufficiently important changes occurred to warrant recognition by the application of another name. The later phase is known as the Modified-Basketmaker period or as Basketmaker III . Some archaeologists believe that the cultural changes were so great that it would have been better if the term “Basketmaker” had not been applied to both periods. The Modified Basketmaker period is
12 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
In summarizing the Basketmaker horizon as a whole, we may say that the culture was fully established in the San Juan drainage in the early centuries of the Christian era, and it may have been developing for quite some time. Later it spread to include a larger area. This part of the Anasazi sequence ended, in most places, at the beginning of the eighth century. The earliest people were dependent on both hunting and agriculture. The only propulsive weapon used was the atlatl or dart-thrower. Squas
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE DEVELOPMENTAL-PUEBLO PERIOD
THE DEVELOPMENTAL-PUEBLO PERIOD
Following the Basketmaker era comes the Pueblo horizon , the second major subdivision of the Anasazi culture . The name comes from that given to the village Indians by the Spaniards. “Pueblo” is simply the Spanish word for a community of people, but in the Southwest it has come to have a definite connotation and is used to refer to communal houses and towns and to the inhabitants, both prehistoric and modern. The Pueblo period, like the Basketmaker, is divided into various phases. Under the clas
21 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Peripheral Areas
Peripheral Areas
Outside of the central area of the Anasazi region there were other developments during this period. In marginal areas, certain phenomena are almost invariably present. There will be some lag in the diffusion of new traits, and in some ways the culture of the marginal section will be less advanced. Early elements may survive for a long time. Traits which are chronologically distinct in the main area may arrive together in the outlying sections. Other features may not spread or may be rejected by
5 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
Returning to the subject of the Developmental-Pueblo period in the nuclear portion of the Anasazi region, we may summarize by saying that this was a time of transition. Pit houses were first used as dwellings, and then, becoming more highly specialized, were used as ceremonial structures. Surface granaries gave rise to above-ground houses. Walls were first predominantly of poles and adobe, later of masonry. Large structures with numerous contiguous rooms became increasingly common. Pottery impro
51 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE GREAT-PUEBLO PERIOD
THE GREAT-PUEBLO PERIOD
The phase which followed Developmental-Pueblo times is the one best known to the general public, for it was during this time that there were built the great communal houses, whose impressive ruins in our National Monuments and Parks draw thousands of fascinated visitors every year. This is the period of the Cliff Dwellers who built the remarkable structures of Mesa Verde and then, apparently, disappeared into the mists of time. Much of the mystery which surrounds these people in the public mind
42 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
The Largo-Gallina Phase
The Largo-Gallina Phase
In the Largo drainage of north-central New Mexico some extremely interesting remains of a Pueblolike people have been found. [91] Chronologically they fit into Great-Pueblo times, but they are not entirely Anasazi in culture . The name Largo has been given to this cultural phase . Tree-ring dates have been obtained in Largo sites, and it is possible to place the period of occupation as extending from the beginning of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth century. The inhabitants of these s
3 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Athapaskan People
Athapaskan People
We may next consider the problem of the Navajos and Apaches who figured so prominently in Southwestern history. They are relative newcomers in the area and it is only within recent years that they have stirred the interest of many archaeologists, although the Navajos have been literally haunted by ethnologists for a long time. Both Navajos and Apaches speak dialects of the Athapaskan language which is spoken by many groups in northwestern Canada. At some time in the relatively recent past, group
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
We may summarize the Great-Pueblo period as follows. It was the period in which the Anasazi culture attained its highest development, and it was marked by intense local specialization. Most of the basic aspects of the culture had already been well established, but there was tremendous improvement and amplification. Unit houses continued to be occupied throughout the period but there was a general coalescence of the population. The trend was toward concentration in great, terraced communal houses
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE REGRESSIVE AND HISTORIC-PUEBLO PERIODS
THE REGRESSIVE AND HISTORIC-PUEBLO PERIODS
The period which followed the Great-Pueblo era and which lasted until historic times was called Pueblo IV under the Pecos Classification. It was defined as “the stage characterized by contraction of area occupied; by the gradual disappearance of corrugated wares; and, in general, by decline from the preceding cultural peak.” [74] At the present time it is often referred to as the Regressive-Pueblo period. [110] This term is not really satisfactory. Admittedly, the latter part of the thirteenth a
14 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
GENERAL REMARKS
GENERAL REMARKS
While the inhabitants of the Plateau were developing the culture described in the previous section, other groups in other parts of the Southwest were evolving along somewhat different lines. The next basic culture to be considered is that of the Hohokam, the people of the Desert Province whose center lies in the Middle Gila Basin and which includes the drainages of the Salt and Gila Rivers of southern Arizona. Hohokam is a Pima word which means “those who have vanished.” The ancient agriculturis
4 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE PIONEER HOHOKAM
THE PIONEER HOHOKAM
The Pioneer period, according to recent estimates, began about the time of Christ and lasted for some five or six hundred years. It is possible, however, that these dates may have to be revised again, as more information becomes available. At present, unfortunately, this earliest period is known from only one site. This is a large site, called Snaketown, [27] [28] [31] which lies in the Gila Indian Reservation twelve miles southwest of Chandler, Arizona. It was occupied from Pioneer until Sedent
7 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE COLONIAL HOHOKAM
THE COLONIAL HOHOKAM
The Colonial period, which lasted from perhaps 600 to about 900 A. D., is better known than the Pioneer, for it is represented at two other excavated sites in addition to Snaketown. These are Roosevelt 9:6, at Roosevelt Lake, Arizona, [48] and the Grewe Site which lies just east of Casa Grande National Monument. [120] By the end of Colonial times all of the distinctive traits which characterize the Hohokam were fully developed, and some had even begun to decline. The most spectacular accomplishm
9 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE SEDENTARY HOHOKAM
THE SEDENTARY HOHOKAM
During the Sedentary period, which lasted from about 900 to 1200 A. D. there was some withdrawal from the outlying districts and a greater concentration of population in a smaller area, although there was also some northward extension of the culture . There was some regional specialization during the latter part of the period, for the inhabitants of the upper or eastern portion of the Gila Basin developed somewhat differently from those of the central area. This was possibly the result of the in
8 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE CLASSIC HOHOKAM
THE CLASSIC HOHOKAM
The Classic period of the Hohokam, which lasted from about 1200 to 1400 A. D. or not long thereafter, was a remarkable era which has been referred to as “the Golden Age of southern Arizona”. As has been previously noted, however, Classic is hardly an accurate designation since we are no longer dealing with a pure Hohokam culture . It was during this time that Pueblo traits and, later, Pueblo people themselves entered the Hohokam homeland. The newcomers, whose influence had been felt even before
8 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE RECENT HOHOKAM
THE RECENT HOHOKAM
About 1400 A.D., the Salado people left the Gila country. It is thought that some may have moved east as far as eastern New Mexico and southeast into Chihauhua. Others from the Upper Gila may have drifted north into the Zuñi area. We cannot be sure of the reason for their departure, but one theory, which has been advanced, is that they may have been forced out by the arrival of the Apaches. [27] What happened to the Hohokam themselves we do not know. Possibly they remained in the same district a
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
We may characterize the Hohokam as follows: They were a prehistoric agricultural people of southern Arizona who may have been the descendants of the western branch of the ancient food-gathering people of the Cochise Culture . They made an amazing adjustment to an unfavorable environment through the use of an extensive canal system. They lived in one-room houses of wattle-and-daub construction with depressed floors and covered side passages or vestibules. Some big houses built during the earliest
2 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
GENERAL REMARKS
GENERAL REMARKS
Writing about the Mogollon Culture is rather like dealing with a time bomb. It is impossible to ignore it, but one has the uncomfortable feeling that whatever one does about it is likely to be wrong. In the relatively few years which have elapsed since it was first suggested that it was a separate entity [89] and not just a regional variation of the Basketmaker-Pueblo pattern, there have come to be many theories. [102] Many archaeologists are convinced that it must be given the status of a basic
4 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
BLUFF RUIN[58]
BLUFF RUIN[58]
The earliest dendrochronologically dated Mogollon site yet found lies in the Forestdale Valley of Arizona. Tree-rings indicate that it was occupied about 300 A. D. As far as it is possible to judge on the basis of the very meager information available in publications at this time, the people who lived at this site, which is known as Bluff Ruin, had a very simple culture . They lived in round pit houses which were entered through the side. The little pottery which has been found is plain brown wa
25 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE PINE LAWN PHASE[84][85]
THE PINE LAWN PHASE[84][85]
At present the Mogollon in New Mexico is divided into four periods. To the first has been assigned the name Pine Lawn Phase . It is known only from one location, the SU site which lies about seven miles west of Reserve, New Mexico. The site name was taken from a local cattle brand. No wood suitable for dating has been found, so it has been necessary to estimate the time of occupation on typological evidence. On this basis, it is thought that the SU site was inhabited prior to 500 A. D. Most of t
3 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE GEORGETOWN PHASE
THE GEORGETOWN PHASE
The earliest period represented at these sites is known as the Georgetown . The estimated dates are from 500 to 700 A. D. [50] Some archaeologists do not agree, and feel that 700 A. D. is the earliest date which may be given for the first Mogollon settlements in New Mexico. [99] During Georgetown times dwellings were small, roughly circular, pit houses which were entered by inclined passageways. A fire pit lay midway between the center of the room and the entrance. Roofs were supported by a main
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE SAN FRANCISCO PHASE
THE SAN FRANCISCO PHASE
Following the Georgetown in New Mexico comes the San Francisco stage for which the dates 700 to 900 A.D. have been tentatively suggested. [50] A few datable logs have been found in structures assigned to the latter part of the period. The approximate age is given in round numbers with the terminal date as 900, although two logs gave dates of 927. The terminal date for the Georgetown and the beginning date for the San Francisco stage are by no means firmly established. There are such distinct cha
3 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
BEAR RUIN[53]
BEAR RUIN[53]
In the seventh and eighth centuries another site of great interest was occupied in east-central Arizona. This site, which is known as the Bear Ruin, lies in the Forestdale Valley some eight miles south of Showlow. Tree-ring dates were obtained from three beams. The dates fall in the middle of the seventh century. These logs may have been cut at any time during the building period, however, and it is only through finding pottery of known age that archaeologists have arrived at the dates of 600 to
2 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE THREE CIRCLE PHASE
THE THREE CIRCLE PHASE
In New Mexico further changes took place during the Three Circle stage which followed the San Francisco. Pit houses were somewhat smaller and shallower and were all rectangular and often stone-lined. Roofs were usually supported by four main posts placed near the corners. Sometimes the supports were incorporated in the wall. In some cases, the side entrances were short and sometimes started with a step. Besides the domestic structures, there were also larger rectangular pit houses with long incl
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
THE MIMBRES PHASE
THE MIMBRES PHASE
More and more the Mogollon people were affected by outside cultural influences. By about 950 or 1000 A.D. their culture had been so greatly altered and was submerged to such an extent that the resulting blend may be considered a new entity and given another name. This phase or culture is called the Mimbres . It was named after the Mimbres River, for this valley seems to represent the focal point of the culture. The greatest development centers in Grant County, New Mexico, where excavated sites i
5 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
We may summarize the Mogollon problem as follows: In west-central New Mexico and east-central Arizona have been found certain sites which do not follow entirely the same pattern as Anasazi or Hohokam sites. There are a number of possible theories to explain the development of the culture represented by these sites. It may have been derived from the Anasazi, it may represent an early fusion of the Anasazi and Hohokam cultures or, it may be a separate cultural entity which possibly developed from
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
CHAPTER VI THE SINAGUA PEOPLE[18]
CHAPTER VI THE SINAGUA PEOPLE[18]
In northern Arizona have been found many remains of prehistoric people who were contemporaneous with and had certain traits in common with the Anasazi, and it was originally thought that they all belonged to this culture . Later, and more intensive, studies have shown that the problem is more complex than was first believed. Apparently various tribes were represented, and at present archaeologists are not in agreement as to the cultures to which all of these groups should be assigned. [29] The p
7 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
In the preceding chapters an attempt has been made to summarize our present knowledge of the prehistory of the great area called the Southwest. Although the Southwest is possibly the best known area in America, we have barely scratched the surface and great discoveries lie ahead. For the present there are many gaps in our knowledge. Doubtless in many cases, data have been incorrectly interpreted. Archaeological opinions are by no means unanimous on all points. In the years to come, other archaeo
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Aborigine —The native inhabitants of a country; in America, the Indians. Apocynum —A plant, related to the milkweed, which provided fibers used in weaving. Archaeology —The scientific study of the material remains of human life and human activities in prehistoric or ancient times. Artifact —A product of human workmanship. Commonly used by archaeologists in speaking of prehistoric tools, implements, etc. Atlatl —An Aztec word meaning spear-thrower. Atlatls are throwing sticks which have a handle
5 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Bibliography
Bibliography
by ERIK K. REED Regional Archaeologist National Park Service After reading about the prehistoric inhabitants of the Southwest many people feel that they would like to visit the places where they lived, examine examples of their ancient arts and crafts, and see their present-day descendants. No description can produce the feeling that one experiences when viewing the imposing ruins found in our National Monuments and Parks. Even a short time spent looking at pottery and other artifacts in a museu
48 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
I. OUTSTANDING EXHIBIT-SITES The San Juan Anasazi Culture
I. OUTSTANDING EXHIBIT-SITES The San Juan Anasazi Culture
Great cliff-dwellings and open pueblos of the Classic period. Pit-house, mesa-top villages and cave remains of earlier periods, Modified Basketmaker and Developmental Pueblo. One of the major foci of the Anasazi culture of 300-1300 A. D., and the most accessible and best-exhibited, interpreted by caravan-tours and an outstanding museum. Paved entrance-road from Highway U. S.-160 between Mancos and Cortez, Colorado. Lodge with adequate accommodations open May-October. The greatest concentration o
2 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
The White Mountains Region
The White Mountains Region
A large pueblo of the period 1000-1400, largely excavated and partially restored by the Arizona State Museum, in the Apache Indian Reservation near Fort Apache, Arizona, twenty miles east of Highway U. S.-60. No accommodations....
11 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
The Rio Grande Area
The Rio Grande Area
Unusual cliff-ruins and open sites in beautiful Frijoles Canyon, in the Pajarito Plateau, west of Santa Fe and south of Los Alamos, New Mexico, seventeen miles from paved highway. Museum. Small lodge open May-October. Large partially-restored pueblo and small cliff-ruins, in the Pajarito Plateau, north of Los Alamos, on the Santa Clara Indian Reservation, fifteen miles from Espanola, New Mexico. Two extensive adobe pueblos, Kuaua and Puaray, the former partially restored. Museum. Across the Rio
56 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
The Salado Complex
The Salado Complex
Two fourteenth century cliff-dwellings high in a small canyon overlooking Roosevelt Lake and the Tonto Basin. These well-preserved ruins have yielded fine and unusual archaeological material: the striking Salado polychrome pottery , a variety of expertly-made cotton textiles, even a lot of lima beans. Very small museum exhibit. No accommodations at the monument. Located near Roosevelt, Arizona, and the Apache Trail (State Highway 88). A unique great adobe structure, sole survivor of the large pu
44 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
Sinagua Sites
Sinagua Sites
Large and small pueblos of 1100-1300 and earlier pit-houses; several Anasazi sites as well as Sinagua—the frontier between these two cultures was not the Little Colorado, but lay some distance west into the Wupatki area, and varied from time to time. Still other cultural influences are observed. One unique feature is a masonry-walled ball-court beside Wupatki Pueblo and near the monument headquarters, fifteen miles east of U. S.-89 and forty-five miles from Flagstaff, Arizona. No museum. No acco
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter
II. MODERN PUEBLOS ON (AT LEAST APPROXIMATELY) PRE-SPANISH LOCATIONS
II. MODERN PUEBLOS ON (AT LEAST APPROXIMATELY) PRE-SPANISH LOCATIONS
ORAIBI on the third or northwesternmost Hopi mesa, materially unchanged for over 600 years, and in a general sense, the other older HOPI INDIAN pueblos—WALPI on First Mesa, SHONGOPOVI and MISHONGNOVI on the middle mesa—which have shifted their locations during the historic period from valley floors to mesa tops. The villages of Hano (Tewa) and Sichomovi on First Mesa, and probably also Shipaulovi on Second Mesa, are eighteenth century foundations. Hotevilla, Bakavi and New Orabi (Kikhochomovi) d
1 minute read
Read Chapter
Read Chapter